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OPINIONS      OF      THE      PRESS 

OH    I  HE    AD  rflOB'S   TBI  ITISH   ON 

VOCAL  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE 

Of  which  the  present  Work  is  an  Abridgment. 

THE   LANCET,    November  1,    1879. 

•  This  book  is  well  written,  and  gives  evidence  of  great 
industry  and  considerable  and  varied  learning  on  the  part  of 
the  author.  .  .  .  The  chapters  on  vocal  culture  will  be  ap- 
preciated by  professional  speakers  and  singers.  .  .  .  Contains 
many  valuable  hygienic  hints.  .  .  .  The  work  is  in  every 
sense  a  creditable  one.' 

THE    SATURDAY    REVIEW,    November   8,    1879. 
'  He  has  evidently  qualified  himself  for  the  task  by  re 
searches  and  study.   .  .  .  The  copious  and  varied  sources  to 
which  he  has  turned  for  his  authorities  are  a  proof  of  the 
pains  he  has  taken.  .  .  .  The  work  is  marked  by  sound  sense 
throughout,  and  may  be  read  with  pleasure  no  less  than  profit.' 

NATURE,  January  22,  1880. 

'  We  welcome  with  pleasure  the  appearance  of  a  work 
which  .  .  .  cannot  fail  to  be  largely  useful.  .  .  .  The  value, 
therefore,  of  such  information  as  is  contained  in  this  work, 
both  to  teachers  and  learners,  can  scarcely  be  overrated.  .  .  . 
The  advice  the  author  gives,  coming  as  it  does  from  one  having 
authority,  is  most  valuable.' — Dr.  W.  Pole,  Mus.  D  ,  P.R.S. 

NEW  YORK  MEDICAL   RECORD,  November  22,  1879. 

•  The  descriptions  are  much  more  clear  and  satisfactory 
than  in  ordinary  books  of  physiology.' 

PHILADELPHIA  MEDICAL  TIMES,  December  6,  1879. 

'  We  do  not  remember  having  ever  read  a  book  on  this 
subject  with  more  pleasure  and  profit  to  ourselves  than  this 
treatise.'  ' 


THE  SCIENCE 


OF 


VOICE  PRODUCTION 

AND 

VOICE  PRESERVATION 

FOR  the   USE  of  SPEAKERS  and  SINGERS 
BY 

GORDON  HOLMES 

PHYSICIAN  TO  THE  MUNICIPAL  THROAT  AND  EAR  INFIRMARY 

FORMERLY  CHKF-I  E-CLINIQCE   AT   THE   HOSPITAL 

FOR   DISEASES   OP    THE   THROAT,    ETC. 


NEW    YORK 
R.    WORTHINGTON,    770    BROADWAY 

1880. 


Cfp3o£ 

Wis 


rov  Kai  anb  yXcotroTjs  /ueAiros  ykviciiav  piev  avSrj 

'  Voice  sweeter  than  honey  flowed  from  his  tongue ' 

Iliad,  i.  249 


PREFACE. 

The  odject  of  this  work  is  to  furnish  persons  who  make 
an  artistic  or  professional  use  of  the  vocal  organs,  with 
a  concise  account  of  those  relations  of  the  voice  to 
physical  and  medical  science  which  are  only  cursorily 
alluded  to,  or  passed  over  altogether,  in  treatises  on 
elocution  and  singing.  It  is  an  abridgment  of  my 
'  Treatise  on  Vocal  Physiology  and  Hygiene '  for  the 
use  of  those  who  do  not  require  to  study  the  subject  in 
all  its  technical  and  theoretical  bearings. 

G.  H. 

27a,  Finsbury  Square,  E.C. 
February,  1880. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2010  with  funding  from  . 
Columbia  University  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/scienceofvoiceprOOholm 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   I. 
SOUND    AND     VOICE. 

DEFINITION   OF   SOUND. 

FAGK 

Transmission  of  sound ] 

In  air :  in  an  attenuated  atmosphere  :  vocal  'vibrations  in 
hydrogen — Rate  at  which  sound  travels  in  different  media 
— Sound-waves  and  Water-waves :  parallel  by  Helmholtz 
—The  Echo. 

Vibration 7 

Production  of  simple  and  compound  vibrations. 

sympathetic  Resonance  .    - 8 

Its  phenomena  and  nature  exemplified. 

Qualities  of  Sound  as  Distinguished  by  the  Ear  .  10 
Music  and  noise :  pitch,  force,  and  timbre  :  simple  and 
compound  sounds :  interference  of  sound-waves :  Corti's 
organ — The  siren  ;  its  use  in  demonstrating  the  nature  of 
sound  ;  the  vocal  organs  act  on  the  air  similarly  to  it — 
Helmholtz's  theory  of  timbre  ;  his  resonators  to  ascertain 
the  presence  of  overtones. 

Reed  Instruments in 

They  act  on  air  like  the  siren — Different  kinds  of  reeds ; 
striking  and  free  :  woody,  metallic,  and  membranous  ;  with 
and  without  tubes — Single  and  double  reed  instruments — 
The  harmonium — The  vocal  reeds. 


viii  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER    II. 

ANATOMY    OF    THE    VOCAL     ORGANS. 

PAGE 

Acoustic  Classification  of  the  Vocal  Organs  .  .  24 
The  chest  or  air-chamber  commanding  the  motor  element : 
the  trachea  or  conducting  pipe — The  larynx  containing 
the  vibrating  element,  the  vocal  reeds — The  resonance 
apparatus :  the  vocal  tube,  pharynx,  mouth,  and  nose — 
The  articulating  instrument  j  tongue,  lips,  etc. 

The  Chest,  oe  Thoeax 26 

Description  of  its  osseous  and  muscular  walls  ;  of  its  con- 
tained organs,  the  lungs,  heart,  bronchial  tubes,  and  trachea. 

The  Larynx 28 

Its  cartilages — The  vocal  reeds — Variations  of  the  larynx 
in  relation  to  age  and  sex. 

The  Vocal  Tube  ok  Resonance  Apparatus      .        .        .34 
The  pharynx,  mouth,  and  nasal  passages — Use  of  the 
lower  jaw. 

The  Tongue,  Lips,  and  Teeth      ..;...    35 
Great  muscular  mobility  of  the  tongue  and  lips ;  they 
form,  with  the  soft-palate,  the  active  articulating  organs  : 
the  teeth,  or  fulcrum. 

CHAPTER    III. 

PHYSIOLOGY    OF    THE    VOCAL     ORGANS. 

Action  of  the  Air- Chamber  (Respiration)    ...      37 
Different  modes  of  breathing ;   diaphragmatic,  costal, 
and  clavicular  :  breathing  in  the  female — Complements  of 
thoracic  air  ;   tidal  air,  vital  capacity,  residual  air,  and 
fixed  air. 

Action  of  the  Vibrating  Element  (Vocal  Reeds)       .      40 
Former  confusion  of  ideas  as  to  the  formation  of  voice ; 
Muller's  researches — The  laryngoscope  ;  Garcia  and  Czer- 
mak;  its  description — Action  of  the  vocal  reeds  as  observed 
with  the  laryngoscope :  chest-register ;  falsetto-register. 


CONTENTS.  ix 

TAOE 

The  Resonance  Apparatus  (Vocal  Tube)  .  .  .  iu 
Use  of  the  ventricles :  their  variations  in  difTercnt 
animals— The  epiglottis:  laryngoscopic  observation  of 
its  movements  in  phonation ;  variability  of  shape  and 
size  ;  theories  regarding  its  use  ;  conclusions  to  be  drawn 
from  comparative  anatomy — The  pharynx  :  its  alterations 
and  influence  on  voice — The  mouth  :  harmonious  vocal 
timbre  mainly  due  to  its  reinforcement  of  overtones — 
The  nose:  discordant  tones  produced  in  the  nasal  chan- 
nels; their  pernicious  effect  on  voice — The  soft-palate: 
its  movements  and  directive  functions  over  the  laryngeal 
vibrations. 

Compass  of  the  Voice— Individual  and  Sexual  Dif- 
ferences—Registers       55 

Bass,  baritone,  tenor,  contralto,  mezzo-soprano,  soprano 
— Tabular  view— Conflicting  theories  as  to  registers. 

Articulating  Apparatus 60 

Nature  of  vowel  sounds  and  mechanism  of  their  forma- 
tion ;  Kratzenstein,  Kempelen,  Willis,  Wheatstone,  Don- 
ders,  Helmholtz  :  difficulty  of  pronouncing  vowels  in 
certain  tones  of  voice — Consonants :  means  of  classify- 
ing, acoustic,  and  anatomical,  division  into  breathed  and 
voiced ;  tabular  view ;  remarks  on  formation  of  various 
letters. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

PHYSIOLOGICAL   PRINCIPLES   OF   VOCAL 
CULTURE. 

Management  of  the  Motor  Element  (Respiration)  .  72 
Measure  of  breathing :  necessity  of  imposing  certain 
restrictions  on  the  chest  movements — Mode  of  breathing: 
abdominal,  costal,  and  clavicular  types  of  respiration ; 
their  comparative  value  in  the  artistic  use  of  the  voice 
— Vocal  gymnastics ;  principles  for  the  elaboration  of  a 
course  of  breathing  exercises. 

anagement  of  the  Vibrating  Element       .        .       .      S2 
Incompleteness  of   physiological  data  leaves  much  to 
empiricism — Force,  means  of  gaining  an  increment  of — 


x  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Timbre,  refinement  of — Compass,  practicability  of  extend- 
ing in  different  registers — Execution,  methods  to  increase 
facility  of. 

Management  op  the  Kesonance  Appakatus    .  '    ,       .      89 
Faulty  timbre  :  guttural  and  nasal  qualities  of  voice — 
Enlarged  tonsils  and  malposition  of  tongue — The  soft- 
palate  ;  abnormal  deficiency,  incomplete  action,  and  disuse 
of — Habitual  closure  of  the  teeth  during  phonation. 

Management  op  the  Articulating  Apparatus  .  .  92 
Vowel  timbre,  means  of  modifying  in  relation  to  mu- 
sical effect  —Consonants  :  culture  of  executive  faculty  of 
tongue — Stammering  and  stuttering,  or  psellism,  defini- 
tion of  :  nature  of  stammering  and  mode  of  remedying  : 
the  etiology  and  treatment  of  stuttering,  various  theories 
advanced  concerning ;  Guillaume  ;  summary  and  conclu- 
sions :    statistical  estimate  of  the  frequency  of   stutter- 


CHAPTER    V. 

THE    HYGIENE    OF    THE    VOICE. 

scope  of  the  subject. 

Special  Hygiene  op  the  Vocal  Organs  ....  99 
Direct  results  of  local  muscular  activity  :  gains  derived 
from  judicious  exercise :  effects  of  over-exertion,  effort, 
and  strain  :  persistent  fatigue  of  the  voice  :  congestion 
leading  to  grandular  sore-throat  and  laryngeal  growths — 
Influence  of  aerial  motion  t  emphysema :  nasal  breathing : 
oral  inspiration :  rules  for  speakers  and  singers  while  sus- 
taining their  parts — Simple  voice  remedies  with  local 
action :  sipping  cold  water :  demulcent  draughts  :  emol- 
lient substances  :  voice  lozenges  and  nostrums  for  hoarse- 
ness. 

General  Hygiene  in  its  Kelation  to  the  Voice  .       .117 

Effects  of  regular  vocal  exercise  on  the  animal  economy : 

benefit  to  health  by  increase  of  thoracic  capacity ;  degrees 

of  voice  production  :  ill -results  of  vocal  efforts — Influences 

of  mode  of  life  on  the  voice.    Alimentation  ;  food,  animal 


CONTENTS. 

and  vegetable;  digestibility;  errors  in  diet  causing 
dyspepsia,  resultanl  voice  troubles  ;  inexpedience  of  vocal 

exercise  after  eating  :  corpulence;  its  invariable  association 
with  shortness  of  breath,  physiological  reasons  of ;  meat 

of  combating  obesity  by  diet:  condiments,  precautdonsto 

be  observed  in  the  use  of:  tobacco,  its  effect  on  the  con- 
stitution and  on  the  throat:  drink;  tea,  coffee,  cocoa; 
alcohol,  amount  that  may  be  taken  habitually  without 
injury,  deterioration  of  voice  from  excess  of,  barmfulness 
of  frequent  small  quantities.  Exercise;  necessity  of,  tu 
health]  desirable  daily  extent  of,  training,  etc.;  advisa- 
bility of  limited  gesticulating  in  public  speaking.  Care 
of  the  skin;  its  functions  and  relations  to  respiration; 
attention  to  clothing;  baths  and  bathing;  cosmetics. 
Climatic  influences  :  hot  climates  j  sea  air;  miasma;  cold 
climates  ;  cold  and  damp,  their  effects  on  the  voice  ;  tem- 
perate climates,  their  sudden  variations;  mountain  air. 


Index  of  Subjects 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

Fig.    1.    The  Cartilages  of  the  Larynx  seen   from 

BEHIND 28 

„     2.    Transverse  Vertical  Section  of  the  Larynx 

seen  from  behind 31 

„     3.    Anatomical  Section,  showing  the  relations 

of  the  Organs  of  Voice 36 

„     4.     Laryngoscopy    appearance  of    the    Larynx 

during  quiet  bbeathing 44 

„  5.  Laryngoscopy  appearance  of  the  Larynx 
when  sounding  a  note  about  the  level  of 
the  ordinary  speaking  voice.        ...      44 

„  6.  Section  of  the  Laryngeal  Cartilages  show- 
ing   HOW    TENSION    OF    THE  VOCAL    BANDS    IS 

effected 46 

„     7.    Laryngoscopy   appearance  of   the    Larynx 

when  emitting  falsetto  tones      ...      47 


VOICE    PRODUCTION 

AN  It 

VOICE    PRESERVATION. 

CHAPTER   I. 

SOUND    AND     VOICE. 

TRANSMISSION  OF  SOUND — Y1BBATION — SYMPATHETIC  Re- 
sonance—  QUALITIES  OF  SOUND  AS  DISTINGUISHED  BY 
THE  EAR — SOI  NDS  GENERATED  IN  TUBES  OB  PirES— 
REED   INSTRUMENTS. 

Definition  of  Sound. — Sound,  in  our  apprehension, 
is  that  which  is  heard,  and  therefore  our  only  means  of 
recognizing-  its  existence  is  through  the  sensation  it 
produces  on  our  ear.  Various  nerves  have  various 
faculties  of  appreciating  external  influences,  as  exem- 
plified by  Bight,  touch,  &c,  hut  the  auditory  nerve  alone 
can  perceive  sound. 

Transmission  of  Sound. 

The  physical  source  of  sound  is  impulse  or  shock  of 
some  material  substance.     But  unless  something  inter- 

B 


2  SOUND  AND    VOICE. 

venes  between  our  ear  and  the  sounding  body  nothing 
can  be  heard.  Sound,  therefore,  cannot  travel  in  empty 
space.  To  illustrate  this  fact  a  bell  may  be  placed 
under  the  exhausted  receiver  of  an  air-pump,  viz.,  in  a 
vacuum.  On  striking  the  clapper  against  the  sides  no 
sound  is  audible.  For  the  same  reason,  sound  produced 
in  rarefied  air  is  greatly  diminished  in  intensity.  As 
we  ascend  from  the  surface  of  the  earth,  the  atmosphere 
becomes  gradually  thinner  and  lighter.  On  the  top  of 
high  mountains,  such  as  Mont  Blanc,  the  air  is  so  at- 
tenuated, that  a  pistol-shot  sounds  like  a  mere  cracker,1 
and  the  voice  also  is  much  weakened.  Were  it  not  for 
the  deep  silence  that  usually  reigns  over  such  localities, 
from  an  absence  of  all  the  activities  of  nature  and  the 
bustle  of  animal  life,  persons  could  only  hear  each  other 
speak  at  very  short  distances.  But  the  most  striking- 
proof  that  the  voice  requires  air  of  a  certain  density  for 
its  normal  production  may  be  furnished  by  inhaling 
hydrogen.  If  we  empty  our  chest  of  air  and  refill  it 
with  this,  the  lightest  of  all  gases,  our  voice-power  will 
be  found  to  have  almost  vanished,  and  with  considerable 
exertion  we  can  only  succeed  in  producing  hollow,  faint, 
and  muffled  tones. 

The  rapidity  with  which  sound  travels  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  medium  through  which  it  passes.  In  air 
it  moves  at  the  rate  of  about  1,090  feet  per  second,  but 
in  water  it  travels  four  times,  in  pine  wood  ten  times, 
and  in  iron  seventeen  times  as  fast. 

1  Tyndall,  Lectures  on  Sound,  1860,  p.  8. 


\ND  VOICE, 


:: 


The  mode  in  which  sound  propagates  itself  from  one 
point  to  another  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  questions 
in  acoustics.  >sir  [saac  Newton  firs!  suggested  that  it 
moves  by  exciting  undulations  or  waves  in  I  he  substance 
which  carries  it,  and  this  theory  is  .-till  upheld  and  be- 
lieved to  becorrect.  In  order  to  understand  this  expla- 
nation it  is  necessary  to  know  exactly  what  waves  are. 
For  this  purpose  we  have  only  to  watch  the  surface  of  a 
sheet  of  water  when  the  wind  is  blowing.  Every  one  i- 
familiar  with  the  appearance  of  the  waves  as  they  roll 
along-,  of  greater  or  lesser  size,  according  to  the  force  of 
the  breeze.  If  a  wave  comes  to  a  chip  of  wood,  a  cork, 
or  a  boat,  they  vise  up  one  side  of  the  wave  to  its  crest 
and  glide  down  the  other  side,  but  when  the  wave  has 
passed  they  remain  in  the  same  place  as  before.  This 
shows  us  that  waves  do  not  consist  of  ridges  of  water 
that  roll  over  the  water  beneath  as  a  ball  rolls  along 
the  ground,  but  truly  of  a  motion  transmitted  through 
the  water  from  one  particle  to  another.  To  illustrate 
this  point  in  a  most  palpable  manner  we  have  only 
to  take  one  end  of  a  long  piece  of  string,  attached  to 
something  at  the  other  end,  and.  holding  it  loosely, 
shake  it  so  as  to  produce  a  kind  of  serpentine  or 
wavy  motion.  Here  we  can  see  waves  running  along 
the  string,  backwards  ami  forwards,  whilst  the  ends 
always  remain  at  the  same  distance  from  each  other. 
The  water  in  vraves performs,  therefore,  only  an  upward 
movement,  and  has  no  onward  motion  whatever. 

D  'J 


4  SOUND  AND    VOICE. 

The  surface  of  water  may  be  agitated  not  only  by 
ranks  of  waves  all  proceeding  in  the  same  direction  one 
after  the  other,  but  also  by  many  series  of  waves,  mov- 
ing* at  the  same  time  all  in  different  ways,  and  crossing 
each  other  at  angles  of  every  degree  in  a  manner  too 
complex  for  description.  In  order  to  observe  this,  let 
us  select  a  piece  of  still  water  and  throw  a  stone  into  it. 
We  see  a  system  of  small  waves,  a  ripple,  in  fact,  pro- 
duced around  the  spot,  which  spreads  out  in  an  ever 
widening  circle  until  it  is  lost  to  sight  or  dies  out.  Let 
us  now  throw  in  several  stones  near  each  other.  Imme- 
diately numerous  circular  systems  are  created  which  meet 
each  other  and  cross  at  many  points,  dividing  the  surface 
of  the  water  into  a  multiplicity  of  squares,  triangles, 
and  diamond-shapes,  to  an  extent  too  complicated  for 
the  eye  to  follow. 

Precisely  similar  to  what  takes  place  in  the  water  is 
the  state  of  the  air  when  disturbed  by  sound-waves, 
either  single  or  many,  propagated  from  various  points. 
Whenever  anything  is  sounded  in  air  it  acts  like  a  stone 
thrown  into  water,  and  creates  a  circular  system  of  waves 
which  spread  rapidly  in  all  directions.  But  as  the  sound- 
wave moves  on  all  sides  at  the  same  time,  it  must  be 
considered  as  a  spherical  layer  of  condensed  air,  contin- 
ually enlarging  and  becoming  gradually  less  condensed 
until  lost.  When  a  series  of  sound-waves  are  spreading 
around,  the  intervals  between  each  are  formed  of  sphe- 
rical layers  of  rarefied  air.  A  soap-bubble  blown  till  it 
bursts  would  picture  the  progress  of  a  single  wave  to 
the  eye. 


SOUND  AND  VOL  5 

In  the  following  passage  Professor  Helmholtz'  draws 
a  beautiful  parallel  between  the  motions  of  sea-waves 
and  of  waves  of  Bound  as  impelled  through  the  atmo- 
sphere : — l  It  is  Beldom  possible  to  Burvey  a  large  surface 
<>f  water  from  a  high  poinl  of  sight,  without  perceiving 
a  great  multitude  <>t' different  systems  of  waves, mutually 
overtopping  and  crossing  each  other.  Tins  is  liest  seen 
on  the  surface  of  the  sea,  viewed  from  a  lofty  cliff  when 
there  is  a  lull  after  a  stiff  breeze.  We  first  see  the  great 
wave-  advancing  in  far-stretching  ranks  from  the  blue 
distance,  here  and  there  more  clearly  marked  out  by 
their  white  foaming  crests,  and  following  each  other  at 
regular  intervals  towards  the  shore.  From  the  shore 
they  rebound  in  different  directions  according  to  its 
sinuosities,  and  cut  obliquely  across  the  advancing  waves. 
A  passing  steamboat  forms  its  own  wedge-shaped  wake 
of  waves,  or  a  bird  darting  on  a  fish  excites  a  small 
circular  system.  The  eye  of  the  spectator  is  easily  able 
to  pursue  each  one  of  these  different  trains  of  waves, 
great  and  small,  wide  and  narrow,  straight  and  curved, 
and  observe  how  each  passes  over  the  surface  as  undis- 
turbedly as  if  the  water  over  which  it  flits  were  not 
agitated  at  the  same  time  by  other  motions  and  other 
forces.  I  must  own  that  whenever  I  attentively  observe 
this  spectacle  it  awakens  in  me  a  peculiar  kind  of  intel- 
lectual pleasure,  because  it  bares  to  the  bodily  eye 
what  the  mind's  eye  grasps  only  by  the  help  of  a  long 


l.rln;  ,h  /■  Tom  mpjlndungen  alt physiotogiscJieOrundlage  fur 
eine  Theorie  der  $fiisik,%T  The  Sensations  of  Tone  as  a  Physiological 
Basis/or  a  Theory  of  Music;  translation  by  A.  .1.  Ellis,  p.  40. 


6  .  SOUND  AND    VOICE. 

series  of  complicated  conclusions  for  the  waves  of  the 
invisible  atmospheric  ocean.' 

'  We  have  to  imagine  a  perfectly  similar  spectacle 
proceeding  in  the  interior  of  a  ball-room,  for  instance. 
Here  we  have  a  number  of  musical  instruments  in  action, 
speaking  men  and  women,  rustling  garments,  gliding 
feet,  clinking  glasses,  and  so  on.  All  these  causes  give 
rise  to  systems  of  waves  which  dart  through  the  mass  of 
air  in  the  room,  are  reflected  from  its  walls,  return,  strike 
the  opposite  wall,  are  again  reflected,  and  so  on  till  they 
die  out.  "We  have  to  imagine  that  from  the  mouths  of 
the  men,  and  the  deeper  musical  instruments,  there 
proceed  waves  of  from  eight  to  twelve  feet  in  length, 
from  the  lips  of  the  women  waves  of  two  to  four  feet 
in  length,  from  the  rustling  of  the  dresses  a  fine  small 
crumple  of  wave,  and  so  on ;  in  short,  a  tumbled  entangle- 
ment of  the  most  different  kinds  of  motion,  complicated 
beyond  conception.' 

The  Echo. — Having  grasped  the  fact  that  sound  con- 
sists of  waves  of  air  travelling  past  us,  it  may  naturally 
occur  to  us  that  if  by  any  means  those  same  waves  could 
be  made  to  return  towards  our  ear,  we  should  hear  the 
sound  over  again  without  its  being  produced  a  second 
time.  This  is  just  the  point  that  is  illustrated  by  the 
well-known  phenomenon  of  the  echo.  If  we  stand 
opposite  the  face  of  a  tall  cliff  and  speak  with  sufficient 
loudness,  the  waves  from  our  voice  will  rebound  from 
the  rock  and  come  back  to  us,  as  if  it  were  repeating 
the  words  we  said.  The  only  things  to  be  considered, 
in  order  to  ensure  the  production  of  the  echo,  are  ( 1 ) 
that  if  we  stand  too  near  the  rock  the  echo  comes  back 


./>  AND  Vi  \  7. 


bo  I  isl  at  i"  blend  in(<>  one  with  our  voice,  and  (2)  that 
if  the  face  of  the  cliff  docs  not  Look  straight  towards  us 
the  sound  may  lie  reflected  in  some  other  direction,  just 
as  a  ball  thrown  against  an  uneven  wall  does  not  come 
back  to  us,  but  hops  off  obliquely  some  other  way. 


Vibration. 

Sounding  bodies  are  in  a  state  of  motion  termed 
vibration.  If  we  move  a  tinner  from  side  to  side  it  is 
vibration,  hut  unless  the  vibrations  are  executed  with  a 
certain  degree  of  force  the  waves  of  air  produced  do  not 
reach,  or  do  not  strike  with  sufficient  impulse  on  our  ear, 
and  no  sound  is  audible. 

Vibrations  maybe  simple  or  compound.  A  body 
performs  simple  vibrations  when  it  moves  regularly  from 
side  to  side  like  a  pendulum.  Hence  simple  vibrations 
are  also  called  pendulum  vibrations.  But  a  vibrating 
body  may  execute  several  eccentric  motions  simulta- 
neously, as  docs  the  string  of  a  piano  when  struck,  and 
in  this  way  compound  vibrations  arise.  Thus,  a  string 
if  stretched  horizontally  may  vibrate  not  only  up  and 
down,  but  also  from  side  to  side, diagonally, and  in  si  g- 
ments  at  the  same  time.  Those  points  or  nodes,  as  they 
are  called,  at  which  a  vibrating  string  divides  into  seg- 
ments remain  at  rest,  as  can  lie  proved  by  experiment. 
Vibrational  forms  can  be  demonstrated  very  clearly  by 
observing  the  motions  of  heavy  and  light  dust,  such  as 
sand  and  lycopodium,  when  sprinkled  over  the  surface 
of  a  plate  of  metal  or  glass  fixed  by  one  end  horizon- 


8  SOUND  AND    VOICE. 

tally  and  thrown  into  vibration  by  drawing  a  violin-bow 
along  its  edge  at 'different  points. 

Even  air  itself,  in  a  body  partially  confined  by  a 
cavity  or  in  a  stream  impelled  forcibly  onwards,  may 
be  thrown  into  vibration  and  generate  sound-waves  in 
the  circumambient  atmosphere.  Many  wind  instruments 
exemplify  this  fact. 

Sympathetic  Eesonance. 

The  power  of  exciting  sympathetic  resonance  is  a 
property  of  sounding  bodies,  and  at  first  sight  might 
seem  identical  with  the  echo.  For  example,  if  we  lift 
the  dampers  from  the  strings  of  a  piano  by  means  of  a 
pedal  and  sound  rather  strongly  a  certain  note  with  the 
voice  or  an  instrument,  we  shall  hear  the  corresponding 
string  vibrating  audibly  in  the  piano  after  we  cease. 
Or  one  key  may  be  pressed  down  gently,  so  as  merely 
to  lift  the  damper  from  the  string,  when  by  singing  the 
corresponding  note  we  can  provoke  its  repetition  from 
the  instrument.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  no  string  can 
be  excited  in  this  way  unless  we  sound  exactly  its  own 
note.  As  a  further  illustration  we  may  take  a  tuning- 
fork,  and,  having  struck  it,  hold  it  to  the  mouth  of  a 
wide-mouthed  bottle.  If  the  cavity  of  the  bottle  is  of 
such  a  size  as  to  give  a  note  in  unison  with  the  tuning- 
fork,  a  distinct  tone  is  heard.  If  we  take  a  rather  large 
bottle  it  can  be  tuned  to  the  proper  pitch  by  pouring 
in  water  gradually,  and  testing  it  at  each  step  with  the 
tuning-fork.  Or  a  sounding  tuning-fork  will  even  excite 
a  quiescent  one  of  the  same  pitch. 


SOUND  AND  VOICE.  9 

In  order  to  understand  sympathetic  resonance  wo 
must  suppose  that  eaeli  sound-wave  moves  slightly  any- 
thing against  which  it  Impinges  in  its  course.  If  a  tile 
of  waves  meets  anything,  Buch  as  a  string  or  a  body  of 
air.  which  can  vibrate  so  as  to  produce  waves  precisely 
similar  to  those  that  strike  it,  each  successive  wave 
increases  the  impulse  of  its  predecessor,  till  a  fresh 
sound  is  given  forth.  Thus  the  body  on  being  struck 
moves  at  first  forwards,  then  backwards  beyond  its 
original  position,  then  again  forwards,  but  to  a  lesser 
extent  than  at  first,  and  so  on  until  the  motion  is  lost. 
But  if  a  succession  of  even  slight  impulses  arrive  with 
such  regularity  that  each  one  moves  the  body  forwards 
as  it  is  starting  itself  in  that  direction  from  having  re- 
tained some  of  the  preceding  impulse,  the  result  is  an 
accumulation  of  force  which  drives  the  body  to  take 
considerable  excursions.  We  can  see  this  kind  of  pro- 
gressive motion  if  we  set  a  pendulum  swinging  from 
our  hand  by  a  number  of  slight  jerks  properly  timed, 
lielmholtz '  illustrates  sympathetic  resonance  by  the 
manner  in  winch  a  heavy  church  bell  may  be  rung  by 
a  boy  who  pulls  at  the  rope  attached  to  it  periodically 
in  such  a  way  as  to  increase  the  effect  of  each  preceding 
pull. 

The  quality  of  the  various  tones  of  the  voice  has 
important  connections  with  the  sympathetic  resonance 
of  the  cavities  of  the  mouth,  nose,  &c,  which  will  be 
discussed  in  another  chapter. 

1  Op.  cit.  i».  .">7. 


io  SOUND  AND    VOICE. 

Qualities  of  Sound  as  Distinguished  by  the  Eae. 

Our  ear  readily  enables  us  to  divide  sounds  roughly 
into  two  great  classes,  viz.,  into  music  and  noise.  A 
musical  sound  strikes  us  as  being  even,  smooth,  and 
melodious,  like  the  tones  of  all  musical  instruments ; 
but  a  mere  noise  has  the  opposite  characteristics,  viz., 
irregularity,  harshness,  grating  on  our  senses,  such  as 
the  rattle  of  carriages  in  the  street,  the  confused  din 
of  a  crowd  of  people  talking  or  shouting,  the  rushing 
of  wind,  &c. 

Furthermore  we  can  distinguish  sounds '  from  each 
other  by  three  striking  qualities,  which  are  especially 
observable  in  musical  tones.     They  are  : — 

1.  Pitch,  or  relative  height; 

2.  Force,  or  intensity  ; 

3.  Timbre. 

The  first  two  qualities  are  sufficiently  indicated  by 
their  names ;  but  by  timbre,  it  may  be  explained,  is 
meant  the  peculiar  distinctiveness  between  tones,  even 
if  of  the  same  pitch,  when  produced  by  different  in- 
struments, such  as  the  voice,  violin,  clarionet,  &c. 

The  difference  between  these  various  kinds  of  sound 
has  been  very  clearly  explained  by  acoustic  researches. 
Scientifically  sounds  are  separated  into  simple  and 
compound. 

In  a  simple  sound  we  have  a  single  atmospheric 
wave  or  a  number  of  single  waves  following  ^each  other 
in  a  given  direction.  A  single  sound-wave  strikes  the 
ear  as  a  short  sound,  such  as  the  crack  of  a  whip ;  a  file 


SOt  ND  AND  l  DICE.  n 

of  waves  is  heard  as  a  continuous  Bound,  such  as  a 
musical  tone. 

Regularity  of  wave-formation  is  the  characteristic 
of  musical  Bounds;  irregularity,  that  of  noise.  Simple 
Bounds  will  generally  strike  the  ear  as  musical,  because 
their  waws  must  bo  regular,  but  not  if  they  are  so  low 
in  pitch  as  to  be  a  mere  drone,  like  the  deepest  organ- 
pipes  ;  or  so  high  as  to  be  painfully  shrill ;  or  too  sud- 
den and  powerful,  like  the  report  of  a  gun. 

Simple  sounds  are  not  very  easy  to  produce,  and  are 
-i Mum  heard  in  nature.  As  nearly  approaching  such 
may  he  instanced  the  chirp  of  the  grasshopper,  whistling 
with  the  mouth,  the  sounds  of  tuning-forks,  flue  organ- 
pipes,  flutes,  Ov:c. 

In  com/poimd  sounds  a  number  of  waves,  each 
formed  by  the  coalescence  of  two  or  more  sound-waves 
having  different  qualities,  are  in  motion.  Compound 
sounds  are  musical  if  their  waves  proceed  together  with 
regularity  of  relation,  whence  harmony  ;  but  if  they  dis- 
turb each  other,  giving  rise  to  confused  and  unperiodic 
wave-motions,  a  discord,  sometimes  amounting  to  mere 
noise,  is  produced,  as  may  be  illustrated  by  striking 
together  a  number  of  adjacent  notes  on  the- piano. 
Different  sets  of  sound-waves  may  even  interfere  with 
each  other  to  such  an  extent  that  the  result  is  silence. 
Thus  two  simultaneous  sounds  may  so  nullify  one  another 
that  nothing  is  heard. 

It  is  a  peculiarity  of  our  ear,  however,  as  pointed  out 
by  (i.  S«  Ohm,  to  resolve  compound  sounds  into  their 
simple  constituents,  and  to  hear  them  all  separately 
though  in  the  same  peried  of  time.     Within  the  ear 


12  SOUND  AND    VOICE. 

is  a  peculiar  arrangement,  called  Corti's  organ,  which 
consists  of  a  number  of  microscopical  rods  f  about  3,000), 
each  of  which  is  tuned,  as  it  is  surmised,  to  vibrate  re- 
sponsively  to  a  certain  note  and  to  none  other.  By  their 
means  we  are  enabled,  after  a  little  practice  in  directing 
our  attention  to  the  matter,  to  recognise  the  several 
component  notes  of  any  chord  that  may  be  sounded. 

Fitch  and  Intensity — The  Siren. 

In  order  to  study  sound  and  understand  its  physical 
properties  we  must  have  recourse  to  certain  acoustic 
instruments,  one  of  the  most  important  of  which  is 
called  the  siren.  The  simplest  form  of  siren  is  that 
known  as  Seebeck's,  and  consists  merely  of  a  thin  disc 
of  wood  or  metal  with  a  circular  series  of  equidistant 
holes  pierced  around  it  near  the  edge.  In  order  to  use 
it,  it  must  be  arranged  so  that  it  can  be  made  to  revolve 
rapidly,  and  at  the  same  time  a  small  bellows  must  be 
fixed  so  as  to  blow  through  each  of  the  holes  successively 
according  as  the  disc  rotates.  When  it  goes  slowly  we 
hear  a  number  of  consecutive  puffs  or  pulses  of  air,  which 
may  be  considered  as  separate  sound-waves,  but  as  soon 
as  a  certain  speed  is  reached  they  become  fused  together 
and  a  continuous  musical  note  is  heard.  The  great 
value  of  the  siren  consists  in  its  enabling  us  to  explain 
the  most  signal  of  all  the  qualities  of  sound,  with- 
out which  music  would  not  exist,  at  least  according 
to  our  present  acceptance  of  the  term,  viz.,  varying 
pitch,  or  the  difference  between  comparatively  low  or 
high  notes.   In  experimenting  with  the  siren  we  perceive 


<r.\V>  AND  VOICE.  13 

that  the  puffs  do  no!  appear  to  form  a  continuous  sound 
until  they  succeed  each  other  with  a  certain  rapidity, 
which  theoretically  should  be  about  sixteen  puffs  in 
every  second.  We  also  observe  the  interesting  fact  that, 
according  as  we  make  the  disc  revolve  faster  and  faster, 
the  sound  rises  gradually  from  a  very  low  note  to  a 
pitch  higher  and  higher,  until,  if  the  mechanical  ar- 
rangements are  sufficiently  perfect,  we  can  produce 
notes  high  up  in  the  musical  scale.1  This  teaches  us 
that  the  pitch  of  a  note  depends  on  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  sound-waves,  or  vibrations,  follow  each  other, 
viz.,  on  the  number  of  waves  produced  by  the  sounding- 
body  per  second.  Thus,  if  our  siren  has  sixteen  holes 
in  its  circumference,  and  we  make  it  revolve  at  the  rate 
of  once  in  a  second,  we  have  sixteen  sound-waves  pro- 
duced in  each  second,  viz.,  one  for  each  hole.  The 
sound  which  proceeds  from  this  rate  of  wave-formation 
corresponds  to  a  very  low  note,  such  as  would  proceed 
from  a  32-foot  open  organ-pipe,  and  one  octave  below 
the  lowest  UG'1  on  our  pianos.3  In  order  to  make  our 
1  The  siren  can  produce  about  three  octaves  of  good  notes,  viz., 

from    -1  Vo  to  a"  3^EE=:. 

2      "~T~       The  letter  notation  used  throughout  the  work  will 


=i     1  ood  on  referring  to  the  table  at  p.  ,J7. 


:1  The  pitch,  however,  of  the  notes  on  pianos  varies  a  little  in 
different  countries,  and  also  according  to  the  maker  of  the  instru- 
ment. The  London  Philharmonic  concert-pitch  gives  155*2  vibra- 
tions (sound-waves)  per  second  Eor  a'  in  the  second  space  of  the 
treble  clef. 


14  SOUND  AND    VOICE. 

siren  sound  the  octave  above  the  note  produced  by  one 
revolution  we  must  make  it  perform  two  revolutions  per 
second ;  for  the  next  octave  higher,  four  revolutions ; 
for  the  next,  eight,  and  so  on.  The  octave  of  any  given 
note  contains  therefore  exactly  twice  the  number  of 
sound-waves  (vibrations),  so  that  in  the  present  case  the 
series  would  run  as  16,  32,  64,  128,  &c.  The  lowest 
octave  or  two  are,  however,  hardly  distinguishable  by 
the  ear  as  musical  sounds,  as  may  be  proved  by  striking 
the  deepest  notes  of  the  piano,  or  listening  to  those  of 
the  organ,  which  has  some  deeper  still.  There  is 
also  a  boundary  to  the  audibility  of  sound  in  the  opposite 
direction,  and  very  high  notes  cannot  be  heard,  or  at 
least  cannot  be  produced  beyond  a  certain  limit.  The 
extent  of  our  sense  of  hearing  seems,  however,  to  be 
more  difficult  to  define  in  the  upper  extreme  of  the 
scale  than  in  the  lower.  Thus  Despretz  produced  and 
heard  the  d"""\  three  octaves  above  the  highest  &""  on 
our  pianos,  having  38,076  vibrations  in  the  second,  by 
exciting  small  tuning-forks  with  a  violin-bow.  The 
range  of  notes  audible  as  musical  sounds  comprises  about 
ten  or  eleven  octaves,  but  varies  more  or  less  in  different 
persons,  according  to  the  delicacy  of  their  ear. 

In  order  to  find  out  the  precise  number  of  vibrations 
in  any  note  of  the  scale,  sirens  of  more  or  less  complexity, 
such  as  those  of  Cagniard  de  la  Tour,  Dove,  Helmholtz, 
&c,  have  been  constructed,  in  which,  by  means  of 
clockwork,  the  revolutions  are  registered  on  a  graduated 
dial  with  hands. 

The  nature  of  varying  intensity  of  sound  can  also  be 
demonstrated  by  the  aid  of  the  siren,  so  as  to  render 


VD  AND  VOICE. 


'5 


intelligible  the  difference  between  loud  and  weak  sounds. 
Thus,  according  as  the  instrument  rotates,  we  can  make 
the  note  Louder  by  blowing  harder;  but  no  amount  of 
hard  blowing  will  raise  the  pitch,  unless  the  wheel  re- 
volves with  greater  speed,  so  as  to  produce  more  sound- 
waves in  the  same  time.  Hence  we  must  infer  that 
loudness  of  sound  depends  on  the  height  of  the  sound- 
waves; not  on  their  length,  because  that  depends  on  the 
rapidity  with  which  they  follow  each  other,  but  on  the 
distance  of  the  crests  of  the  waves  from  the  bottom  of 
the  trough  between  each  one.  Loud  sounds,  therefore, 
consist  of  very  tall  waves  with  pointed  crests  and  deep 
furrows  between  them,  but  weak  sounds  are  formed  only 
by  low  air-waves,  which  have  no  crests,  and  pass  along- 
like  mere  undulations  or  curves  on  the  surface  of  water. 

In  order  to  calculate  the  length  of  ivave  proceeding 
from  any  given  note,  we  have  only  to  divide  the  rate  at 
which  sound  travels  in  air,  1,090  feet  per  second,  by  the 
vibrational  number  of  the  note.  Thus,  if  we  take  the 
middle  c'  on  the  piano,  with  264  vibrations  in  each 
second,  we  obtain  4  feet  \\  inches  as  the  length  of  its 
wave.  Because  the  first  wave  given  off  by  the  note 
must  be  at  the  distance  of  1,090  feet  at  the  moment  the 
2G4th  is  generated,  and  the  line  of  intervening  waves 
will  therefore  divide  the  distance  into  2G4  equal  parts. 

Further  on  we  shall  see  that  the  manner  in  which 
the  siren  when  revolving  throws  the  current  of  air  into 
vibration  is  similar  in  principle  to  wdiat  takes  place  in 
our  own  throats  every  time  we  speak  or  sing.  Thus, 
as  we  drive  the  air  out  of  our  lungs,  the  mechanism  of 
our  vocal  organs  enable    w  to  divide  the  stream  into  a 


16  SOUND  AND    VOICE, 

series  of  puffs,  with  a  variable  and  almost  inconceivable 
rapidity  according  to  the  note  produced, 

Timbre1 — Upper  Partial  Tones. 

The  next  point  we  have  to  consider  is  the  nature  of 
timbre,  and  this  leads  us  to  a  further  study  of  compound 
tones.  Formerly  it  was  thought  that  the  peculiarity  of 
the  sounds  emitted  by  various  instruments  was  due 
entirely  to  distinctive  shapes  of  their  vibrations.  But 
Helmholtz  has  lately  proved  that  a  particular  timbre 
is  not  rigidly  productive  of  a  single  form  of  vibration, 
but  that  this  quality  of  sounds  is  essentially  dependent 
on  the  measure  of  certain  supplementary  tones  which 
are  heard  in  conjunction  with  the  fundamental  tone  on 
almost  all  instruments.  The  fact,  to  which  allusion  has 
already  been  made,  has  long  been  known,  that  strings 
in  vibrating  do  not  only  swing  as  a  whole,  but  have 
also  several  secondary  motions,  each  of  which  produces 
a  sound  proper  to  itself.  A  string,  when  struck,  vibrates 
first  in  its  entire  length ;  secondly,  in  two  segments ; 
thirdly,  in  three  ;  fourthly,  in  four ;  and  so  on.  All  of 
these  motions  are  simultaneous,  and  the  sounds  proceed- 
ing from  them  are  blended  into  one  note.  The  lowest 
note  is  the  loudest,  and  is  called  the  fundamental  or 

The  Germans  call  a  compound  tone  a  Klang,  and  timbre  Klang- 
farbe  (tone-colour),  which  Professor  Tyndall  has  anglicised  by 
elangtint.  Mr.  Ellis,  in  translating  Helmholtz,  prefers  the  expres- 
sion quality  of  tone.  A  third  writer  suggests  acoustic  colour  (Ency~ 
elopcedia  Britanniea,  art.  Acoustics).  I  have  used  the  French  timbre, 
as  it  is  so  commonly  employed  and  so  well  understood  in  this 
country. 


SOUND  AND   VOICE.  17 

prime  tone,  and  the  others  are  called  overtones,  upper 
partial  tones,  or  harmonics.  These  overtones  invariably 
bear  certain  definite  relations  to  the  lowest  note  of  the 
>t  ring,  and  constitute  an  ascending  series  which  contains 
twice,  three  times,  tour  limes,  five  times,  etc.,  as  many 
vibrations  as  the  fundamental  tone.  They  are  there- 
fore separated  by  a  constantly  decreasing  interval  from 
the  lew  est  to  the  highest.  The  relative  succession  of 
the  first  eight  overtones  of  a  string,  taking  c  as  the 
prime  tone,  is  exemplified  by  the  following  scale : — 

«==£=&== ~— <=— *fg-Jg_j£. 


The  first  upper  partial  is  the  octave,  containing 
twice  as  many  vibrations  as  the  fundamental  tone,  the 
second,  the  twelfth,  containing  three  times  as  many; 
the  third,  the  second  octavo,  with  four  times  the  num- 
ber, and  so  on  ;  in  some  cases  as  high  as  the  fifteenth  or 
twentieth  remove,  where  they  do  not  lie  as  much  as  a 
semitone  apart.  From  this  fact,  it  at  once  appears  that 
the  higher  overtones  of  a  string  must  give  rise  to  a  dis- 
cord, and  thus  render  the  timbre  disagreeable.  They 
can,  however,  be  got  rid  of  by  striking  the  string  in  a 
certain  point,  which  prevents  their  formation. 

As  with  the  notes  of  strings,  so  with  the  tones  of 
almost  all  instruments.  Harmonics  are  present,  but  by 
no  means  in  the  same  number  or  position  in  the  series 
in  all  cases.  Thus  one  instrument  may  be  particularly 
rich  in  the  higher  overtones,  another  in  the  lower  ones, 
whilst  a  third  may  select,  as  it  were,  a  proportion  of 
both,  omitting  those  intervening.     In  every  instance, 

c 


1 8  SOUND  AND    VOICE. 

however,  they  must  bear  the  direct  relation  to  the 
fundamental  tone  of  having  twice,  three,  or  four  times, 
etc.,  as  many  vibrations.  On  the  number  of  harmonics 
present  and  their  intensity,  according  to  Helmholtz, 
depends  the  proper  timbre  of  any  instrument  by  which 
we  can  recognise  it  from  others  of  a  different  class. 
The  voice  especially  is  very  rich  in  overtones,  and  not 
only  possesses  a  complete  series  as  high  as  the  seven- 
teenth or  twentieth,  but  has  probably  the  power  of  vary- 
ing them  according  to  the  quality  of  tone  it  is  desired 
to  produce.     To  this  matter  we  will  return  later  on. 

In  order  to  analyse  compound  tones  and  determine 
the  exact  number  and  position  of  the  harmonics  proper 
to  any  particular  timbre,  Helmholtz  has  taken  advantage 
of  sympathetic  resonance.  He  has  had  constructed  a 
series  of  glass  globes  to  act  as  resonators,  each  with  a 
rather  wide  mouth  on  one  side,  and  on  the  opposite 
drawn  into  a  short  perforated  tube  which  fits  the  en- 
trance of  the  ear.  Each  globe  in  the  series  is  tuned  to 
a  certain  simple  tone,  and  resounds  sympathetically  to 
that  and- no  other.  Whenever  the  proper  tone  of  any 
one  is  sounded,  it  can,  if  placed  to  the  ear,  be  heard  to 
sing  into  it  very  distinctly.  Thus  a  delicate  means  is 
furnished  of  ascertaining  the  presence  or  absence  of 
simple  sounds  of  any  particular  pitch  in  complex  com- 
binations of  tones.  Even  amidst  the  numerous  and 
confused  noises  of  the  streets,  Helmholtz  relates,  the 
proper  tones  of  these  resonators  may  often  be  heard 
cropping  up. 


SOI  ND  AND   VOICE.  10 


Reed  [nstri  sients. 

The  product  ion  of  musical  sounds  by  means  of  vibra- 
ting reeds  claims  our  alien!  ion,  as  instruments  of  Ihi- 
class  bear  the  nearest  analogy  to  the  voice.  The  reed 
always  covers  an  aperture  which,  in  vibrating  under 
pressure  of  air,  it  alternately  closes  and  leaves  partially 
open  for  the  passage  of  the  current,  on  a  principle  iden- 
tical with  that  of  the  siren. 

Keeds  produce  tones,  therefore,  by  dividing  the  air 
into  a  series  of  puffs,  the  rapidity  of  which  determines 
the  pitch.  Their  notes  are  powerful  and  highly  composite, 
having  distinctly  recognisable  overtones  as  high  as  the 
nineteenth  or  twentieth  of  the  series. 

Reeds  are  divided  into  striking  and  free  reeds.1  The 
former,  whilst  vibrating,  strike  the  margin  of  the  open- 
ing at  each  excursion,  the  latter  fit  the  aperture  so  as 
exactly  to  close  it  without  touching  the  edges. 

Reeds  may  further  be  separated  into  two  classes, 
according  as  they  are  used  with  tubes,  as  in  reed  organ- 
pipes,  the  clarionet,  etc.;  or  as  they  act  only  in  conjune- 
tion  with  their  aperture,  that  is,  like  the  tongues  of 
harmoniums,  concertinas,  etc. 

Tube  reeds,  in  material,  are  generally  woody  or 
membran<m8. 

1  A  reed  is,  of  course,  a  kind  of  tubular  grass,  and  the  reed  of  an 
organ-pipe  i>,  in  fact,  a  small  semi-cylinder  againsl  the  open  side  of 
which  the  vibrating  tongue  is  fitted.    Hu(  the  latter  is  the  essential 
pari  of  all  reed  instruments,  and  therefore  the  vibrating  lamina, 
■!i  is  the  actual  agent  in  producing  (lie  sound,]  to  bo 

termed  a  iced.     . 

■   - 


20  SOUND  AND    VOICE. 

Woody  reeds  are  used  either  singly  or  doubly.  The 
clarionet  will  serve  as  an  example  of  a  tube-instrument 
with  a  single  woody  reed,  which  belongs  to  the  class  of 
striking  reeds,  though  arranged  so  as  not  actually  to 
strike.  The  tube  of  a  medium-sized  clarionet  (C)  is 
about  twenty  inches  long,  producing  for  its  fundamen- 
tal tone  e,1  with  a  wave  four  times  its  own  length,  and 
following,  therefore,  the  law  of  stopped  pipes.  The 
column  of  air  in  this  tube  overpowers  the  reed  and 
forces  it  to  vibrate  sympathetically  with  it.  The  reed 
does  not,  therefore,  emit  its  proper  tone,  but  merely 
serves  to  make  the  tube  speak  by  its  power  of  renderiDg 
the  stream  of  air  intermittent.  A  scale  is  formed  by 
shortening  the  tube  (by  opening  side-holes),  the  amount 
of  shortening  required  to  raise  any  given  note  a  musical 
tone  being  more  than  an  inch.  For  a  compass  of  an 
octave,  therefore,  a  shortening  of  nine  or  ten  inches  is 
necessary.  At  the  same  time  the  reed  must  also  be 
shortened  by  pressure  with  the  lips.  The  timbre  of  this 
instrument  somewhat  resembles  that  of  the  soprano 
voice,  probably  on  account  of  its  nasal  character. 

The  hautboy  or  oboe  is  blown  by  means  of  double 
woody  reeds,  fixed  so  that  the  air  rushes  through  a  chink 
alternately  opened  and  closed  by  their  approximated 
extremities  when  vibrating.  In  the  production  of  notes 
instruments  of  this  class  follow  the  law  of  open  pipes. 
The  fundamental  note  of  the  hautboy  is,  therefore,  an 
octave  above  that  of  a  clarionet  with  the  same  length 
of  pipe. 


SOUND  AND   VOL  :i 

la  we  have  the  human  lips  in 
Bounding  brass  instruments, such  as  the  horn,  trombone, 
The  lips,  placed  in  apposition  againsl  the  mouth- 
piece of  the  tube,  generate  Bound  very  mu<-h  like  the 
mechanism  by  which  voice  is  produced,  but  their  vibra- 
tions are  commanded  by  those  of  the  tube.  Being  thus 
blown  with  double  reeds,  brass  instruments  follow  the 
acoustic  law  of  open  pipes,  and  produce  sound-wave-  of 
twice  the  length  of  their  tube.  They  have  usually  very 
long  tubes,  for  reasons  connected  with  the  progression 
of  the  harmonic  series;  and  in  order  to  vary  the  pitch 
of  any  note  by  a  musical  tone,  an  alteration  in  the  length 
of  the  tube  of  two  or  three  inches  or  even  more  is  re- 
quired,  according  to  the  size  of  the  instrument. 

The  brass  springs  or  reeds  of  harmoniums  and 
similar  instruments  have  no  tube,  and  render,  therefore, 
the  notes  proper  to  their  own  vibrational  number.  Each 
reed  is  fixed  at  its  aperture,  and  no  alteration  in  their 
rate  of  vibration  can  be  effected.  A  separate  reed  is 
consequently  required  for  each  note  of  the  scale.  The 
differences  of  pitch  are  obtained  by  using  springs  of  vary- 
ing length,  breadth,  and  thickness.  In  a  harmonium  of 
a  i  oinpass  of  five  octaves  the  lowest  note  is  produced  by 
a  tongue  about  3^  inches  long,  the  highest  by  one  of  half 
an  inch.  In  the  lowest  notes  the  varying  dimensions 
of  the  successive  reeds  are  most  apparent,  but  in  the 
highest  octave  the  difference  in  size  of  adjacent  springs 
i-  barely  appreciable  by  the  eye.  The  power  and  timbre 
of  the  tones  are  well  known. 

In  the  organ  separate  reeds  are  also  used  for  each 
note;  but  a  tube  of  fixed  length,  which  sounds  in  unison 


22  SOUND  AND    VOICE. 

with  the  reed,  is  added  in  order  to  render  the  tone  more 
powerful. 

In  studying  the  production  of  musical  scales  by  reeds 
we  observe  that,  when  tubes  are  superadded,  the  vibra- 
tions of  the  reeds  can  only  be  commanded  by  pipes  of 
considerable  length,  which  require  very  manifest  shorten- 
ings to  raise  their  pitch,  following,  in  fact,  the  natural 
acoustic  laws  as  determined  for  vibrations  in  tubes.  On 
the  other  hand  we  see  that  if  reeds  are  used  separately, 
very  slight  modifications  in  their  size  produce  remark- 
able alterations  of  pitch.  Thus,  we  shorten  a  tube  by 
an  inch  or  two,  and  obtain  a  rise  of  only  one  tone  or 
perhaps  a  semitone;  but  if  we  diminish  the  length  of  a 
reed  by  a  much  less  amount,  the  result  is  a  leap  of  two 
or  three  octaves. 

The  Vocal  Reeds. 

The  economy  of  nature,  taking  advantage  of  the 
peculiar  adaptability  of  reeds  for  producing  musical 
tones,  and  the  slight  material  modifications  they  require 
in  order  to  yield  a  scale  of  notes,  has  given  us  a  pair  of 
membranous  reeds,  the  so-called  vocal  cords,  as  the  essen- 
tial part  of  our  vocal  apparatus.  But,  compared  with 
artificial  reed  instruments,  the  voice  appears  to  exceed 
them  as  much  in  complexity  as  it  does  in  beauty,  com- 
bining more  or  less  the  mechanism  and  qualities  of  them 
all,  and  having,  in  addition,  a  surplus  of  powers  peculiar 
to  itself.1 

To  brass  instruments  sounded  by  the  lips  compressed 

1  See  Hullah,  Cultivation  of  the  Speaking  Voice,  p.  9. 


SOUND  AND    VOICE.  23 

together  and  tightened  gradually  in  ascending  the  Bcale, 
a  close  likeness  is  borne  by  the  vocal  reeds  associated 
will  1  their  tube,  which,  however,  influences  nol  the  pitch 
of  their  uote,  hut  only  it-  1  imbre. 

And  again,  as  I  he  vocal  reeds  alter  their  size  and 
shape  almost  indefinitely .  according  to  the  pitch  of  their 
vibrations,  it  may  he  considered  thai  tin'  vocal  scale  is 
formed  h\  a  series  of  separate  reeds  like  those  of  the 
harmonium.  But.  within  their  own  compass,  the  vocal 
reeds  are  infinitely  more  versatile  in  giving  gradations 
of  pitch  than  the  fixed  series  of  springs  of  that  in- 
st  rument. 

To  analyse  their  peculiarities  of  constitution,  and  the 
delicacies  of  their  action,  forms  our  principal  subject 
for  the  next  two  chapters. 


24 


CHAPTEE   II. 

ANATOMY  OF  THE    VOCAL   ORGANS. 

acoustic  classification  of  the  vocal  organs — the  chest, 
ok  thorax — the  larynx the  vocal  tube,  or  reson- 
ance apparatus the  tongue,  lips,  and  teeth. 

Acoustic  Classification  of  the  Vocal  Organs. 

The  anatomical  parts  concerned,  directly  and  indirectly, 
in  the  formation  of  voice  and  speech  are  numerous  and 
complex,  whilst  most  of  them  present  the  peculiarity  of 
having  often  to  fulfil  several  functions  in  the  same 
moment  of  time.  On  this  account  the  ostensible  ma- 
chinery, so  to  speak,  of  voice  presents  an  entanglement, 
in  which  it  is  difficult  to  perceive  the  essential  com- 
ponents, as  distinguished  from  those  which  merely  act 
in  concert  with  them  in  relation  to  other  offices. 

A  mechanical  description  of  the  vocal  organs,  from  a 
purely  acoustic  point  of  view,  is  all  that  will  be  here 
given.  With  this  object  they  may  be  separated  pri- 
marily into  two  great  classes,  viz.,  the  organs  which 
produce  sound,  and  those  which  only  afterwards  modify 
it.  Both  these  classes,  however,  require  subdivision, 
because  in  the  former  case  we  have,  firstly,  the  organs 
which   furnish  a  current  of  air,  and,   secondly,   those 


ANATOMY  OF  THE   VOCAL    ORGANS.         25 

which  by  re-active  vibration  divide  it  into  sound-waves; 
and  in  the  latter  case  we  have  the  parts  which  influence 
purely  the  musical  quality  of  the  tones,  and  also  the 
organs  which  stand,  psychologically,  at  the  head  of  the 
vocal  series,  i.e.,  those  which  form  the  instrument  of 
articulation. 

On  these  principles  the  classification  of  the  vocal 
organs  is  shown  in  detail  as  follows: — 

I.    Organs  which   Combine   their  Action  to  Gene- 
rate Sound. 

1.  The    air-chamber  commanding  the  motor 

element.  The  chest-walls,  with  their  proper 
muscles ;  the  lungs ;  the  bronchial  tubes  ; 
and  the  trachea  or  windpipe. 

2.  The  larynx,  containing  the  mhratmvg  ele- 

ment. The  laiyngeal  cartilages  sustaining 
the  vocal  reeds,  and  the  intrinsic  and  ex- 
trinsic muscles  acting  on  them. 

IT.     Organs  which  merely  Modify  Sound. 

1.  The  resonance  apparatus  or  vocal  tube. 
The  ventricles  and  vestibule  of  the  larynx, 
the  pharynx,  mouth,  and  nose  with  its  ac- 
cessory cavities.  Also  certain  moveable  part  a 
of  the  boundaries  of  the  vocal  tube,  viz.,  the 
epiglottis,  soft  palate,  and  lower  jaw. 

2.  Tin  articulating  instrument.  The  tongue, 
lips,  soft-palate,  teeth,  and  lower  jaw.1 

1  It   may  l>c  objected  to  this  classification  that  t be  longs 
larynx  also  modify  sound  the  former  inforceor  intensity,  the  latter 


26         ANATOMY  OF  THE    VOCAL   ORGANS. 

The  consonant  action  of  all  these  parts  is  required 
for  the  perfect  formation  of  voice  and  speech ;  but  the 
first  class,  in  their  proper  functions,  are  essentially  in- 
dependent of  the  second,  whilst  the  second  class  can 
only  perform  their  office  with  the  co-operation  of  the 
first.  Secondary  relations  of  a  similar  character  exist 
between  the  first  and  second  groups  of  organs  in  each 
pair  of  subdivisions. 

The  Chest,  or  Thorax. 

The  chest -walls  consist  of  a  bony  and  cartilaginous 
framework,  of  which  the  various  apertures  are  covered 
in  by  numerous  muscles  and  membranes.  The  osseous 
portion  is  formed  by  the  twenty -four  ribs,  twelve  on  each 
side,  which  are  seamed  together,  behind  by  the  spinal 
column,  and  in  front  by  the  breast-bone  and  costal  car- 
tilages. Above  and  in  front  the  collar-bone,  or  clavicle, 
and  behind  the  shoulder-blades  also  contribute  to  the 
bony  consolidation  of  the  chest-walls.  In  front  the 
ends  of  the  ribs  are  joined  to  the  breast-bone  by  several 
slips  of  cartilage,  except  the  last  or  lowest  two  on  each 
side,  which  are  therefore  called  floating  ribs. 

The  space  thus  partly  enclosed  has  a  somewhat 
conical  shape,  being  broad  and  open  below  at  the  ab- 
domen, and  narrow  and  almost  shut  above  at  the  neck. 
The  reason  of  this  is  that  the  opposite  pairs  of  ribs  in- 
crease gradually  in  length  and  embrace  successively  a 

in  pitch.  The  main  acoustic  action  of  both  is,  however,  to  produce 
sound,  and  as  regards  the  larynx  every  note  must,  I  think,  be  con- 
sidered as  a  separate  production,  and  not  as  a  modification  of  sound, 
primarily  existing  in  another  form. 


ANATOMY  OF  Till-    VOCAL    ORGANS. 

Larger  circle  from  the  firsl  or  highest  to  the  last  hvo  or 
three. 

The  joints  of  the  ribs  with  the  spine  admit  of  a 
considerable  degree  of  motion;  the  articulations  of  the 
cartilages  with  the  breast-bone  are  also  moveable,  but 
to  a  lesser  extent,  and  not  at  all  in  old  age. 

The  ribs  are  well  clothed  with  muscles,  which  per- 
form  the  double  duty  of  completing  the  closure  of  the 
chest  and  altering-  the  dimensions  of  it.-  cavity  by  their 
contractions.  They  consist  of  two  classes,  viz..  muscles 
of  vmpvration  and  of  expi/ration.  Both  classes  are  also 
subdivided  into  two  groups,  namely,  abdominal  and 
costal,  according-  as  they  enlarge  the  chest  towards  the 
abdomen,  or  by  expanding  the  ribs.  There  is  only  one 
muscle  of  the  abdominal  class,  viz.,  the  diaphragm,  or 
muscular  partition,  between  the  chest  and  abdomen. 
The  costal  group  are  numerous,  and  are  divided  into  an 
ordinary  and  an  extraordinary  set. 

The  chest  contains  the  lungs,  bronchial  tubes,  heart, 
etc.  At  the  top  of  the  chest  the  windpipe,  or  trachea, 
divides  into  two  bronchial  tubes,  one  for  each  side, 
which  pass  outwards  from  each  other  for  a  few  inches 
and  then  divide  gradually  into  numerous  small  branches, 
like  those  of  a  tree.  The  ultimate  branches  are  no 
thicker  than  a  pin,  and  terminate  each,  in  a  group  of 
little  cells,  called  air-cells.  All  these  little  tubes  and 
cells  are  collected  and  connected  together  into  a  mass 
on  each  side  of  the  chest  form  the  lungs,  which  are  thus 
of  a  spongy  nature.  They  are  also  very  elastic,  and 
if  distended  with  air  will  re-contract  to  their  previous 
size. 


ANATOMY  OF  THE    VOCAL   ORGANS. 


The  Laetnx. 
The  windpipe  is  about  4^-  inches  long  and  at  the 
upper  part  of  the  throat  undergoes  expansion  and  modi- 
fication so  as  to  form  the  essential  organ  of  voice,  the 
larynx.  Under  the  chin  the  larynx  can  be  seen  and  felt 
as  the  prominence  called  '  Adam's  apple.'     It  consists  of 


Fig.  1. — The  cartilages  op  the  larynx  seen  from  behind. 

1.  The  epiglottis.  2.  The  thyroid  cartilage,  its  wings  and  horns.  3.  The  ary- 
tenoid cartilages  tipped  with  the  cartilages  of  Santorini.  4.  The  cricoid  cartilage, 
its  body. 

five  principal  cartilages,  namely,  the  epiglottis,  the  thy- 
roid, or  shield  cartilage,  the  cricoid,  or  ring-cartilage, 
and  two  arytamoid  cartilages.1 

1  These   names  are  of    Greek  origin,  i.e.,  from  eTnyXwrris,  that 
whieJi  covers  the  glottis,  or  space  between  the  vocal  reeds ;  6vpe6s,  a 


ANATOMY  OF   THE   VOC  I/.   ORGANS.         2>j 

The  epiglottis  is  the  highest  cartilage,  and  stands 
erect  against  the  back  of  the  tongue,  above  and  in  front 
of  the  other  parts  of  the  larynx.  In  shape  it  much  re- 
sembles a  leaf,  being  broad  and  expanded  above  and 
dwindled  below  into  a  Btalk-like  extremity. 

The  thyroid  cartilage  is  the  Largest,  and  forms  the 
front  and  sides  of  the  larynx.  It  is  quite  open  behind, 
where  its  wings,  as  they  are  termed,  terminate  in 
rounded  margins,  which  are  prolonged  upwards  and 
downwards  into  horns,  four  in  number,  two  on  each 
side,  two  above  and  two  below.  In  front  it  is  cloven 
down  the  centre  for  half  its  length,  and  the  rest  of  the 
central  part  has  a  peculiarly  elastic  structure  and  gives 
attachment  inside  to  the  vocal  bands. 

The  cricoid  cartilage  is  very  like  a  signet-ring,  with 
a  broad,  thick  part  behind  and  forming  a  slender  half 
hoop  in  front,  just  under  the  lower  edge  of  the  thyroid 
cartilage.  At  this  place  an  elliptical  chink  exists  be- 
tween  the  ( wo  which  are  thus  separated  for  about  a  third 
of  an  inch  from  above  downwards  at  the  widest  part. 
Behind,  the  lower  horns  of  the  thyroid  cartilage  em- 
brace the  thick  part  or  body  of  the  cricoid  like  two  short 
ringers,  and  a  hinge-like  joint  is  thus  formed.  The  back 
part  of  the  cricoid,  therefore,  projects  upwards,  not  quitf 
half  way,  into  the  open  space  of  the  thyroid. 

The  arytenoid  cartilages  are  a  pair,  and  form  two 
small,  irregular,  three-sided  pyramids,  about  half  an  inch 
in  height.     Their  apices  are  above,  and  their  basesrest, 

shield',  Kpinos,  a  Tiny,  apvran/a,  a  vessel  of  a  doubtful  kind,  pro- 
bably a  spouted  ladle.  In  the  lattei  instance  the  resemblance  is 
most  likely  that  of  the  whole  upper  outlet  of  the  larynx,  the  epi- 
glottis foriniDg  the    poc 


30         ANATOMY  OF  THE    VOCAL   ORGANS. 

about  a  third  of  an  inch  apart,  on  the  upper  thick  edge 
of  the  body  of  the  cricoid,  where  two  smooth  surfaces  or 
facets  are  prepared  for  them.  They  stand  between  and 
close  to  the  posterior  margins  of  the  thyroid  cartilage, 
and  thus  tend  to  fill  up  still  more  its  open  space.  In 
front  and  below  they  run  into  rather  long  points,  called 
the  vocal  processes,  because  the  vocal  bands  spring  from 
them.  They  turn  and  glide  freely  on  the  smooth  part 
of  the  cricoid,  to  which  they  are  fastened  by  ligamentous 
fibres. 

In  addition  to  these  great  cartilages  there  are  also 
several  small  ones,  called  sesamoid,  some  not  larger  than 
a  pin's  head.  Two  such  (Ccvpitula  Santorini)  form  the 
apparent  apices  of  the  arytenoid  cartilages'.  Another 
pair  (Cartilagines  Wrisbergii)  lie  in  the  folds  of  mem- 
brane {ary -epiglottic)  which  form  laterally  the  upper 
margin  of  the  larynx.  The  others  will  be  noticed  wher- 
ever they  appear  to  bear  on  the  mechanism  of  voice. 

The  soft  parts  of  the  larynx  consist  of  the  vocal 
bands,  muscles,  blood-vessels,  nerves,  etc.,  the  whole 
being  clothed  with  mucous  membrane,1  which  induces 
a  smoothness  and  uniformity  of  surface. 

The  vocal  bands,'*  or  reeds,  to  which  all  the  other 
structures  are  subservient,  consist  at  their  edges,  which 
move  from  side  to  side,  to  and  from  each  other,  of  strong, 
whitish,  and  highly  elastic  tissue.     Behind,  they  are  at- 

1  Tlie  red,  moist  membrane  which  covers  the  internal  surfaces  of 
the  body  is  called  mucous  membrane. 

2  Generally  called  vocal  cords  in  this  country;  but,  as  this  term 
conveys  a  false  idea  of  their  acoustic  nature  (see  p.  22),  it  seems 
to  mc  preferable  to  call  them  vocal  hands  (like  the  German  Stimm- 
Vandeii)  or  reeds. 


ANATOMY  OF  THE   VOCAL  ORGANS.         31 

tached  to  the  vocal  processes  of  the  arytenoid  cartila 
and  in  front    to  the  thyroid  cartilage,  quite  close  to- 
gether, running  into  each  other  in  fact.     The  space  be- 
tween 1  hem,  tin'  glottis, is  therefore  triangular  in  shape, 
because  the  vocal  bands  can  be  drawn  widely  a  pail  pos- 


Pig.  2. — Transverse  vertical  section  or  the  larynx  seen 

FROM   BEHIND. 

1.  Epiglottis.     '-'.  Tong  .  Thyroid  cartilage.    4.  Thyro-ary-epiglottic 

mnscli                    icular  bands.    >'<■  Ventricles.  7.  Vocal  bands.    8.  Ext.  and  sup. 

irytsenoid   muscle-.     :'.  Int.  ilitto.     10.  Lateral   crico-arytssnoid   muscles. 
11.  Cricoid  cartilage.    12.  Trachea. 

teriorly,  but  are  fixed  to  the  one  spot  anteriorly.     A 
Bpac  iietween  e;<oli  vocal  band  and  the  inside  of 

Hi."  wings  "f  'li<'  thyroid  cartilage,  which   i-   filled  up 
with  muscle.     Taken  with  this  muscle,  which  i>  inti- 


32         ANATOMY  OF  THE    VOCAL   ORGANS. 

niately  connected  with  them,  the  vocal  bands  resemble 
a  pair  of  prisms,  fixed  by  their  base,  horizontally  and 
parallel  to  each  other,  to  the  cartilaginous  side  walls  of 
the  larynx,  and  projecting  towards  one  another  with  their 
free  sharp  edges.  Three  of  the  little  cartilages  men- 
tioned are  generally  found  imbedded  in  the  substance 
of  the  vocal  bands  where  they  are  attached  to  the  thyroid 
cartilage,  one  at  the  point  where  they  run  into  each  other, 
and  one  at  the  extremity  of  each  just  before  they  join. 

Near  the  position  where  the  stalk-like  process  of  the 
epiglottis  is  attached  to  the  thyroid  cartilage  there  is  an 
eminence,  called  the  cushion  of  the  epiglottis,  which 
projects  over  the  anterior  extremities  of  the  vocal  bands. 

The  upper  surfaces  of  the  vocal  bands  are  flat,  and 
in  order  to  give  them  breadth  a  deep  hollow  is  scooped 
out  of  the  fleshy  part  of  the  larynx,  just  above  them  on 
each  side.  These  cavities  are  called  the  ventricles,  or 
pockets  of  the  larynx.  The  upper  edges  of  the  ventricles 
are  somewhat  thickened  and  cord-like,  wherefore  they 
were  formerly  thought  to  be  a  second  pair  of  vocal 
cords.  On  this  account  they  are  now  generally  called 
false  vocal  cords.  But  a  better  name  for  them  is  '  ven- 
tricular bands.' ' 

The  larynx  has  several  muscles  attached  to  it,  which 
may  be  considered  in  two  sets,  i.e.,  an  intrinsic  and  an 
extrinsic,  or  the  muscles  which  move  the  vocal  bands 
and  those  which  draw  the  whole  larynx  up  and  down  in 
the  throat.  The  names  of  these  muscles  usually  imply 
the  cartilages  to  which  they  are  attached.2 

1  Like  the  German  Tasclieribanden  (pocket  bands). 

2  It  may  be  mentioned  here   that   generally  muscle  must  be 
fastened  to  something  by  each  end.    Its  action  is  to  bring  the  two 


AX.  I  TOM)  ■  or  THE  I  '<  KAL  ORGA  NS. 


Variations  of  the  Larynx  vn  Age  and  Sex. — 
The  larynx  undergoes  a  great  and  rapid  increase  of 
size  in  the  male  sex,  in  about  the  fifteenth  year  of  life. 
The  voice  then  '  breaks,'  and  descends  in  pitch  by  nearly 
an  octave.  The  same  phenomena  occur  in  females,  but 
not  to  a  marked  extent,  and  the  depression  of  vocal 
pitch  is  only  about  a  tone  or  two.  In  adult  age  the 
male  larynx  is  always  much  larger  than  that  of  the 
female:  its  cartilages  are  much  firmer,  and  are  pro- 
nouncedly angular  in  shape.  The  female  larynx  is  more 
delicate  in  the  structure  of  its  cartilages,  which  are  also 
curved  in  their  outlines.  The  average  length  of  the 
ligamentous  portion  of  the  vocal  reeds  is  in  the  male 
nine,  and  in  the  female  six  lines.1  After  middle  life 
the  laryngeal  cartilages  gradually  undergo  ossification, 
whence  in  old  age  they  become  so  rigid  that  much  of 
the  power  of  varying  the  tension  of  the  vocal  bands  and 
inflecting  the  voice  is  lost. 

points  of  its  attachment  closer  top-other  by  its  power  of  contracting 
or  shortening  its  length,  at  the  same  time  increasing  in  thickness, 
rigidity,  and  also  in  temperature. 

1  The  preparations  in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Snr- 
-  illustrate  very  well  the  variation  of  size  in  different  larynges. 
See,  fnr  example,  No.  939  P,  a  female  larynx  with  ventricles  that 
appear  as  mere  chinks,  and  No.  939  P,a,  a  male  larynx,  the  ventricles 
til'  which  arc  almost  large  enough  to  contain  the  first  joint  of  the 
little  finger  For  tables  showing  numerous  comparative  measure- 
ments of  various  parts  of  the  larynx,  see  Beclard,  Dictionnaire 
EncyclopSdique  des  Sciences  MSdicales,  Paris,  18G8,  art.  Larynx, 
p.  555  k.c. 

n 


34         ANATOMY  OF  THE    VOCAL   ORGANS. 


The  Vocal  Tube,  or  Resonance  Apparatus. 

This  consists  mainly  of  the  pharynx,  mouth,  and 
the  double  set  of  passages  in  the  nose.  The  soft-palate, 
pillars  of  the  fauces,  and  lower-jaw  may  also  be  men- 
tioned in  this  connection.  There  are  also  some  auxiliary 
cavities,  such  as  the  portion  of  the  larynx,  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  deep,  above  the  vocal  cords,  into 
which  the  ventricles  open,  and  also  some  chambers 
in  the  thick  bones  of  the  head  and  face.  Further, 
even  the  trachea  and  lungs  may  be  ranged  under  this 
heading. 

The  -pharynx  extends  from  the  upper  part  of  the 
larynx  to  the  base  of  the  skull,  forming  the  open  space 
at  the  back  of  the  mouth,  and  also  at  the  back  of  the 
nose.  Its  dimensions  vary  in  different  persons.  On  an 
average  it  may  be  said  to  be  4^-  inches  from  top  to 
bottom,  2^  from  side  to  side,  and  1^  from  behind  for- 
wards at  its  widest  part  opposite  the  base  of  the  tongue. 
Its  size  and  shape  can  be  altered  by  movements  of  the 
various  parts  by  which  it  is  bounded. 

The  mouth  requires  no  special  description.  Its 
capacity  can  be  greatly  varied  by  the  action  of  the 
tongue  and  lower-jaw. 

The  cavity  of  the  nose  is  peculiar,  and  may  be 
regarded  as  a  collection  of  six  small  tubes.  Each 
nostril  is  separated  into  three  channels,  running  hori- 
zontally from  before  backwards  to  the  upper  part  of 
the  pharynx,  by  projections  on  its  external  wall  formed 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  VOCAL  ORGANS,  3s 

by  ridges  of  Bpongy1  bone.  The  floor  of  the  nose  is 
formed  by  the  upper  surface  of  the  hard-palate,  or  roof 
of  the  mouth. 

The  so/I '-)>< ila/c,  is  attached  to  the  back  of  the  hard- 
palatej  and  hangs  down  towards  the  back  of  the  tongue, 
separating  the  mouth  and  pharynx.  From  its  centre 
depends  the  uvula,  a  small  body  like  a  grape,  as  its 
name  implies.  The  pillars  of  the  fauces  are  two  ridges 
of  muscle  on  each  side  of  the  pharynx.  They  terminate 
above  in  the  soft -palate,  of  which  they  form  the  greater 
part  in  arching  across  to  unite  with  each  other  from 
opposite  sides,  between  them  on  each  side  lie  the 
large  glands  called  tonsils.  The  pair  of  posterior  pillars 
consist  of  the  muscles  before-mentioned  (Palato-phco- 
vyng&b)^  which  spring  from  the  hind  edges  of  the  thyroid 
cartilage,  and  converge  towards  each  other  in  passing 
upwards  to  unite  at  the  palate  over  the  uvula.  The 
lower-jaw  assists  to  open  and  shut  the  mouth,  thereby 
altering  its  capacity  and  resonance  properties. 

The  Tongue,  Lips,  and  Teeth. 

The  tongue,  lips,  and  teeth  superadded  to  the  oral 
portion  of  the  vocal  tube  render  possible  articulate 
speech.  The  tongue  and  lips  are  almost  wholly  com- 
posed of  muscular  substance,  which,  being  capable  of 
infinite  combinations  of  contractions,  bestows  on  them 
a  great  versatility  of  motion.  They,  with  the  soft-palate 
and  lower-jaw,  may  be  considered  as  the  active  organs 

1  '  Spongy  '  in  appearance  only,  being  of  a  cellular  structure,  but 
not  capable  of  being  squeezed  like  a  sponge. 

D   2 


36 


ANATOMY  OF  THE    VOCAL    ORGANS. 


of  articulation.     The  teeth  take  a  passive  part,  acting 
as  a  kind  of  fulcrum  for  the  tongue  and  lips. 


Fig.  3. — Anatomical  section  showing  the  relations  of  the 
organs  op  voice. 

1.  Cavities  in  the  bones  of  the  head  (frontal  and  sphenoidal  cells).  2.  The  chan- 
nels of  the  nose  (sup.,  mid.,  and  inf.  meatus).  3.  Entrance  of  Eustachian  tube  (leading 
to  ear).  4.  Uvula,  5.  Pillars  of  the  fauces  with  the  tonsil  between  them.  6.  Epi- 
glottis. 7.  Thyroid  cartilage.  8.  Cricoid  cartilage.  9.  Ventricle  of  larynx.  10.  Vocal 
band.    11.  Trachea  (windpipe).    12.  CEsophagus  (gullet). 


37 


CHAPTEE   III. 

PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  VOCAL   ORGANS. 

ACTION  OF  THE  AIB-CHAMBEB  (bESPIBATION) — ACTION  OF 
THE  YIBKATLNG  ELEMENT  ( VOCAL  REEDS) — THE  RESON- 
ANCE APPARATUS  (vocal  tube) — COMPASS  of  the 
voice:  individual  and  sexual  differences:  regis- 
ters— ARTICULATING  apparatus. 

In  this  chapter  we  have  to  consider  the  share  taken  by 
the  various  parts  of  the  body  just  described  in  the  pro- 
duction of  voice  and  speech.  In  accordance  with  the 
classification  adopted,  the  action  of  the  thorax — the  air- 
chamber  or  wind-chest — which  initiates  the  giving  forth 
of  sound,  first  claims  notice. 

The  Air-Chamber  (Respiration). 

The  muscles  attached  to  the  chest-walls  have  the 
power  of  enlarging  the  cavity  of  the  thorax,  so  as  to 
draw  air  through  the  windpipe  into  the  lungs,  which 
thus  become  inflated.  The  lungs  have  not  in  themselves 
any  ability  to  increase  their  capacity,  and  are  merely 
blown  out  by  force  of  the  air  which  rushes  into  them, 
according  as  the  chest  expands,  in  order  to  prevent  the 


38       PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE    VOCAL   ORGANS. 

formation  of  a  vacuum.  As  there  are  two  principal 
ways  in  which  the  thorax  can  be  enlarged,  inspiration 
is  divided  into  (1)  abdominal  and  (2)  costal. 

In  abdominal  breathing  inspiration  is  performed  by 
means  of  the  diaphragm,  which,  when  relaxed,  projects 
upwards  into  the  chest.  By  contracting  it  greatly  dim- 
inishes the  amount  of  its  upward  projection,  thus  render- 
ing the  chest  more  capacious  below,  at  the  same  time 
that  it  presses  downwards  the  stomach  and  other 
abdominal  viscera.  When  it  again  relaxes  the  tendency 
of  the  abdominal  organs  to  return  to  their  former  posi- 
tion is  sufficient  to  thrust  it  up  and  expel  the  air 
introduced.  In  men  ordinary  quiet  breathing  is  chiefly 
diaphragmatic  ;  but  in  women  this  muscle  is  used  to  a 
much  less  extent. 

Costal,  or  rib  breathing,  is  accomplished  by  raising 
the  ribs,  each  of  which  can  move,  as  on  a  pivot,  at  its 
joint  with  the  spine.  During  this  action  the  ribs  are 
drawn  up  closer  together  in  front  and  at  the  sides,  so  as 
to  lessen  the  vertical  measurement  of  the  spaces  between 
them,  and  the  breast-bone  is  made  to  advance.  Behind, 
of  course,  the  ribs  merely  rotate  on  their  heads,  and 
cannot  approach  nearer  to  each  other,  owing  to  the  nature 
of  their  vertebral  articulation.  The  lower  ribs  also  move 
much  more  than  the  upper  ones,  the  first  rib  being,  in 
fact,  almost  fixed.  In  costal  inspiration  the  thorax  is 
enlarged  laterally  and  in  front,  because  the  larger  ribs  in 
being  raised  are  made  to  occupy  the  place  of  the  smaller 
ones.  The  ordinary  costal  muscles  are  generally  suffi- 
cient for  respiratory  purposes,  and  only  in  taking  a  long 
breath — in  forced  inspiration — is  the  action  of  the  extra- 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE   VOCAL  ORGANS.        39 

ordinary  Bel  required.  The  ext  raordinary  muscles  of  in- 
Bpiration  are  Dearly  all  attached  to  the  shoulder,  and 
their  real  object  is  to  regulate  the  motions  of  thai  part. 
It',  however,  the  Bhoulders  be  elevated,  they  can  raise  <  he 
ribs,  but  only  to  a  comparatively  small  extent,  because 
their  power  is  mostly  exerted  over  the  upper  ribs, which 
have  little  freedom  of  motion.  In  some  diseased  con- 
ditions the  movements  of  the  diaphragm  and  lower  ribs 
are  very  much  restricted,  and  in  compensation  the  upper 
ribs  are  called  on  to  work  to  their  utmost.  This  is 
sometimes  called  clavicular  breathing,  because  the 
motions  of  the  chest  are  principally  in  the  region  of  the 
collar-bone  or  clavicle. 

With  respect  to  aspiration,  when  all  the  muscles  of 
inspiration  relax,  the  ribs  fall  by  their  own  weight,  the 
abdominal  viscera  returning  to  their  position  thrust  back 
the  diaphragm,  and  the  lungs  by  contracting  assist  to 
drive  out  the  superfluous  air  that  is  in  them.  Much  of 
the  act  is  therefore  automatic ;  but  if  more  force  is 
wanted  the  muscles  which  pass  from  the  lower  ribs  down 
the  abdomen  and  flank  can  pull  the  ribs  down  strongly, 
and  at  the  same  time  can  press  the  abdominal  organs  up 
against  the  bottom  of  the  chest.  In  this  manner  a 
forcible  expiration  can  be  performed. 

The  air  of  respiration  may  be  divided  into  four 
different  complements.  In  the  first  place  we  have  the 
air  which  passes  continually  in  and  out  of  the  lungs 
during  quiet  breathing.  This  is  called  tidal  air.  Next 
we  have  that  which  can  be  forced  into  the  lungs  when 
expanded  to  their  full  extent  by  drawing  a  deep  breath. 
This  gives  the  vital  capacity  of  the  chest.     Thirdly, 


40      PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE   VOCAL   ORGANS. 

there  is  the  complement  of  air  that  can  be  pressed  out 
of  the  lungs  when  emptied  by  a  strong  effort  of  expi- 
ration, called  residual  air;  and  lastly  there  remains 
some  air  which  cannot  be  squeezed  out  by  any  exertion 
during  life,  nor  even  after  death,  without  the  direct 
application  of  such  mechanical  force  to  the  lungs  as 
would  rupture  their  air-cells.  Hence  it  may  be  called 
fixed  air,  or  air  which  cannot  be  removed. 

The  Vibeating  Element  (Vocal  Eeeds). 

The  column  of  air  as  it  rushes  out  of  the  lungs 
through  the  trachea  is  rendered  sonorous  by  the  vibra- 
tions of  the  vocal  reeds.  Without  these  membranous 
bands  man  would  be  voiceless,  or  at  least  could  only 
speak  in  a  whisper,  as  is  frequently  seen  in  cases 
where  they  are  paralysed  or  destroyed  through  disease. 

Great  obscurity  prevailed  as  to  the  actual  action  of 
the  larynx  in  emitting  voice  until  within  the  last  half- 
century.  The  interest  of  such  questions  has  always  led 
many  to  attempt  their  solution,  whilst  the  former  de- 
ficiencies of  anatomical  and  acoustic  science  and  the 
difficulties  of  empirical  observation  rendered  the  nume- 
rous conjectures  conflicting  and  many  of  them  baseless. 

About  1830,  however,  Johannes  Miiller,  a  great 
German  physiologist,  made  a  series  of  most  exhaustive 
and  ingenious  experiments  with  the  natural  detached 
larynx  and  artificial  imitations  of  it.  His  researches 
showed  conclusively  that  a  compass  of  a  couple  of  octaves 
could  be  drawn  from  the  vocal  bands  merely  by  varying 
their  tension  when  approximated. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  VOCAL  ORGANS.       41 


The  Laryngoscope  and  its  Revelations. 

After  the  researches  of  M tiller  but  little  was  left  in 
the  way  of  direct  experiment  to  be  done  by  his  suc- 
cessors, although  conflicting  theories  of  voice  were  still 
held,  owing-  to  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  the  absolute 
demonstration  or  ocular  proof  of  any  one  set  of  deduc- 
tions. The  increase  of  acoustic  science  gradually  threw 
a  light  over  many  obscure  points,  but  it  was  only  on  the 
discovery  of  the  laryngoscope  that  most  of  the  doubts 
and  absurdities  were  finally  resolved  and  laid  to  rest. 
Many  unsuccessful,  or  perhaps  disregarded,  attempts  to 
see  the  action  of  the  living  larynx  had  been  made  prior 
to  1854,  when  Manuel  Garcia,  a  teacher  of  singing, 
actually  caught  sight  of  his  own  vocal  bands  in  a  small 
dentist's  mirror  pushed  into  the  back  of  his  mouth. 
Continuing  his  observations  on  his  own  throat,  he  was 
at  the  end  of  a  year  enabled  to  read  a  paper  at  the 
Royal  .Society  on  the  formation  of  voice  as  elucidated 
by  means  of  his  invention.  Garcia's  device  did  not, 
however,  attract  much  immediate  notice ;  and  it  was 
only  at  the  end  of  two  years  that  Czermak,  a  German 
medical  professor,  commenced  a  systematic  practice  with 
tlic  instrument,  on  himself  and  on  patients,  and  showed 
finally  the  feasibility  and  facility  of  viewing  the  living 
larynx.  As  soon  as  Czermak  had  satisfied  himself  as  to 
the  actual  value  of  the  inveution,  he  travelled  into  the 
chief  cities  of  Europe,  and,  by  giving  laryngoscopic 
demonstrations  before  the  principal  physicians  and  sur- 
geons of  each  town,  achieved  the  introduction  of  the 


42      PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE   VOCAL   ORGANS. 

laryngoscope  into  medicine  as  an  indispensable  adjunct 
to  the  local  study  of  disease. 

The  laryngoscope,  as  now  used,  consists  simply  of 
a  small  mirror,  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  diameter, 
fixed  at  the  end  of  a  stem  of  sufficient  length  to  allow  it 
to  be  passed  to  the  back  of  the  mouth  (middle  part  of 
pharynx).  It  is  held  there  at  such  an  inclination  as  to 
reflect  the  parts  of  the  throat  below.  Some  practice  is 
required  in  order  to  be  able  to  place  it  quickly  at  the 
proper  angle,  which  in  fact  differs  somewhat  in  almost 
every  individual,  and  also  in  order  to  manipulate  it  so 
delicately  as  not  to  irritate  by  pressure  the  tongue, 
palate,  and  other  parts  adjacent.  The  tongue  should  be 
protruded  during  the  examination,  as  the  larynx  is  thus 
drawn  up  higher  in  the  throat.  It  may  be  held  out 
gently  with  a  small  cloth.  Of  course  a  strong  light 
must  be  thrown  on  the  surface  of  the  mirror,  and  for  this 
purpose  various  kinds  of  accessory  apparatus  are  em- 
ployed. 

The  Vocal  Reeds. — On  inspecting  the  larynx  with 
the  laryngoscope,  the  rim  of  its  upper  outlet,  surmounted 
in  front  by  the  epiglottis  which  generally  stands  erect 
against  the  back  of  the  tongue,  is  plainly  visible.  But 
the  most  striking  objects  are  the  vocal  bands  which  are 
seen  at  a  short  distance  below,  projecting  opposite  each 
other  from  the  sides  of  the  inner  wall  of  the  larynx,  and 
of  a  pearly  whiteness  which  contrasts  strangely  with  the 
redness  of  the  surrounding  parts.  Between  them  is  the 
oblong  aperture  through  which  the  air  continually  passes 
to  and  fro,  the  glottis,  of  dimensions  varying  at  every 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  VOCAL  ORGANS.       4j 

moment,  for  the  vocal  reeds  are  never  absolutely  at  real 
during  breathing,  bul  with  deep  inspiration  separate 
widely  until  they  almost  disappear  from  sight  behind 
the  ventricular  bands,  and  with  expiration  gradually  ap- 
proach each  other,  so  as  sometimes  almost  to  touch. 
If  the  person  under  observation  speaks  in  an  ordinary 
tone  of  voice  they  draw  together  so  closely  as  to  reduce 
the  glottis  to  a  mere  thread-like  fissure,  and  as  the  sound 
issues  forth  the  eye  can  perceive  that  they  are  in  a  state 
of  vibration.  At  one  point  they  touch,  viz.,  posteriorly, 
where  they  join  the  tips  of  the  vocal  processes  of  the 
arytenoid  cartilages.  Behind  this  the  chink  of  the 
glottis  is  continued  backwards  for  a  short  distance? 
about  three  lines,  between  the  inner  edges  of  the  base  of 
the  arytsenoid  cartilages  (cartilaginous  glottis),  but 
this  portion  is  probably  incapable  of  vibration,  and 
cannot  properly  be  considered  as  forming  part  of  the 
vocal  reeds. 

The  theory  of  the  generation  of  sound  by  our  vocal 
bands  is  as  follows : — By  the  contraction  of  the  expira- 
tory muscles  of  our  chest  we  propel  a  stream  of  air 
from  our  lungs  through  our  windpipe.  Impinging 
against  the  closed  glottis  from  below,  the  current  drives 
the  vocal  bands  apart  sufficiently  for  a  puff  to  escape. 
This  relieves  momentarily  the  pressure  of  the  air  below, 
and  the  vocal  bands  at  once  spring  back  towards  each 
other  by  their  own  resiliency.  The  glottis  is  thus  again 
shut,  the  pressure  re-accumulates  below,  and  a  second 
puff  escapes.  By  a  continuance  of  this  action  the  cur- 
rent of  our  breath  is  divided  into  a  series  of  puffs,  and 
a  tone  is  produced  in  like  manner  as  is  observed  to 
occur  when  experimenting  with  the  siren. 


44      PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE   VOCAL   ORGANS. 


The  Larynx  as  viewed  with  the  Laryngoscope. 

5 

Bach  of]  \fimffue 

4,  ^Jkxtffcfc-  4 


■5— 3 


1 

Fig.  4. — The  larynx  during  quiet  breathing. 

1.  Arytenoid  cartilages.    2.  Cartilages  of  "Wrisberg.    3.  Vocal  bands.    4.  Ven- 
tricular bands.    5.  Epiglottis  with  its  cushion  below.    6.  Trachea. 

6 

i\ 

Hack  oil  \  Tongue 
5  ,kwL.  .5 


■■-3 


Fig.  5. — The  larynx  when  sounding  a  note  about  the 
level  of  the  ordinary  speaking  voice. 

1.  Arytenoid,  cartilages.   2.  Cartilages  of  "Wrisberg.  3.  Vocal  bands.  4.  Entrance 
of  ventricles.    5.  Ventricular  bands.    6.  Epiglottis. 


PHYSIOLO\  ////    VOCAL  ORGANS.       45 

Considerable  alterations  take  place  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  vocal  reeds  and  the  upper  outlet  of  the 
larynx  during  the  production  of  a  scale  of  not*  -  from 
the  lowest  to  the  highest  pitch.  Whilst  sounding  the 
deepest  notes  of  the  chest-register  the  glottis  is  open  in 
its  whole  length,  and  forms  an  elliptical  slit,  which,  in 
a  bass  voice,  may  measure  as  much  as  a  line  at  its 
widest  part  when  the  vibrations  strike  outwards.  After 
ascending-  two  or  three  tones  the  tips  of  the  vocal  pro- 
cesses become  visible,  projecting  towards  each  other 
across  the  chink,  and  on  a  rise  of  two  or  three  tones 
more  they  come  by  degrees  into  contact.  At  this  mo- 
ment the  glottis  is  seen  to  consist  of  two  parts ;  the 
main  portion  in  front,  forming  a  linear  fissure  between 
the  vocal  reeds  of  from  a  third  to  half-an-inch  in  length, 
and  a  small  triangular  space  behind  separating  the 
aryta~>noid  cartilages.  This  condition  of  the  glottis 
occurs  about  the  level  of  the  ordinary  speaking  voice. 
In  mounting  a  few  notes  higher,  the  posterior  trian- 
gular space  diminishes  until  at  last  it  is  quite  closed, 
and  in  this  state  it  remains  during  the  emission  of  the 
upper  three  or  four  chest-notes.  At  the  same  time  the 
progressive  narrowing  of  the  anterior  fissure,  the  actual 
vibratory  glottis,  continues  until  it  is  reduced  to  a  mere 
dark  line  between  the  borders  of  the  vocal  reeds.  Con- 
comitant with  these  changes  the  vocal  bands  seem  to  be 
lengthened  ;  they  are  so  in  fact  by  being  stretched  ;  but 
greater  than  their  real  is  their  apparent  lengthening, 
which  depends  on  their  coming  more  into  sight  in  the 
laryngeal  mirror,  according  as  the  gamut  is  ascended. 
Their   actual   lengthening  may  be  about  a    line,  their 


46       PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE   VOCAL   ORGANS. 

apparent  increase  of  length  twice  or  three  times  that 
amount.  In  the  lowest  notes  the  epiglottis  generally 
conceals  from  view  the  front  of  the  glottis ;  in  the 
middle  notes  the  cushion  of  the  epiglottis  still  covers 
the  anterior  ends  of  the  vocal  bands,  but  at  the  top  of 
the    chest-register  their  tension  is   very  evident,    and 


Fig.  6. — Section  of  the  laryngeal  cartilages  showing  how 
longitudinal  tension  of  the  vocal  bands  is  effected. 

1.  Thyroid  cartilage.  2.  Arytasnoid  cartilage.  3.  Cricoid  cartilage.  The  dotted 
lines  from  the  vocal  process  of  the  arytsenoid  cartilage  to  the  thyroid  indicate  the 
position  of  the  edge  of  the  vocal  band,  which  is  tightened  by  progressive  closure  of 
the  chink  below,  between  the  thyroid  and  cricoid  cartilages. 

appears  to  draw  them  away  from  their  attachment  to 
the  thyroid  cartilage,  so  as  to  bring  their  full  length 
into  sight.  In  mounting  the  scale  of  chest-notes, 
therefore,  the  outlet  of  the  larynx  undergoes  enlarge- 
ment, and  its  margins  expand  so  as  to  afford  a  com- 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  VOCAL  ORGANS. 


47 


plete  view  of  the  interior.  When  a  note  is  swelled  to 
iis  maximum  of  Loudness,  the  vocal  reeds  perform  more 
ample  vibrations  in  the  same  period  of  time,  their  edges 
cannot  be  seen  in  such  sharp  definition,  and  the  glottic 
aperture  assumes  a  hazy  appearance. 

In  the  falsetto  register,  the  laryngoscopy  appear- 
ances are  in  many  respects  the  reverse  of  those  just 
described.  The  rim  of  the  larynx,  instead  of  becoming 
dilated,  suffers  a  progressive  and  marked  constriction 


Fig.  7. — The  larynx  during  the  emission-  of  falsetto  notes 
(middle  of  range). 

in  proportion  as  the  pitch  rises,  until  at  last  only  the 
edges  of  the  vocal  bands  can  be  seen  through  the  nar- 
row orifice  that  remains.  The  object  of  the  movements 
seems  to  be  to  shorten  the  glottis  and  limit  the  vibrating 
portion  of  the  vocal  reeds  as  much  as  possible.  As  soon 
as  their  tension  can  be  increased  no  further  by  the 
means  resorted  to  for  the  formation  of  chest-notes,  a 
change  occurs  in  the  physiological  mechanism  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  a  higher  scale  of  tones  by  gradually 
reducing  the  size  of  the  reeds.    The  aperture  during  the 


48       PHYSIOLOGY  OF   THE    VOCAL  ORGANS, 

emission  of  the  lower  falsetto  notes  occupies  the  centre 
of  the  ligamentous  glottis,  and  appears  to  be  from  a 
quarter  to  a  third  of  an  inch  in  length,  but  somewhat 
wider  and  more  elliptical  than  at  the  highest  level  of 
the  chest-register.  It  diminishes  in  length  as  the  sound 
mounts  up,  but  at  the  same  time  its  width,  if  anything, 
rather  increases.  At  a  certain  elevation  of  pitch,  which 
of  course  varies  considerably  in  different  individuals,  the 
power  of  ascending  any  higher  is  lost. 

Many  theories  have  been  put  forward  as  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  larynx  in  producing  the  falsetto  notes,  and 
the  question  is  not  yet  quite  decided.  On  the  whole  I 
think  it  most  in  accordance  with  observed  facts  to  sup- 
pose that  the  falsetto  range  is  produced  by  a  truly 
sphincter-like  action  of  all  the  constrictive  glottic 
muscles.  In  such  case  the  effect  would  be  a  progres- 
sive concentric  narrowing  of  the  glottis,  during  which 
it  would  tend  to  pass  from  an  elliptic  to  a  circular 
shape.  Thus  the  aperture,  until  it  had  attained  the 
circle,  would  be  seen  to  diminish  in  length  and  in- 
crease in  breadth  during  the  ascent  of  the  scale,  and 
elevation  of  pitch  could  proceed,  ccuteris  paribus,  until 
the  reduction  of  the  opening  to  a  mere  pin-hole.  The 
remarkable  delicacy  and  elasticity  of  the  cartilages  of  the 
female  larynx  is  precisely  the  condition  most  favourable 
to  such  an  operation,  and  an  explanation  would  thus  be 
afforded  of  the  extraordinary  range  in  the  highest  regis- 
ter so  often  met  with  in  female  voices.1 

1  See  ■page  88, 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF   THE    VOCAL   ORGANS.      49 

Resonance  Apparatus  (Vocal  Tube,  etc.). 
The  Ventricles. 

The  existence  of  these  small  cavities  appears  neces- 
sity in  order  to  allow  a  proper  breadth  to  the  vocal  reeds. 
In  man,  their  acoustic  influence  on  the  voice  must  be 
unappreciable  on  account  of  their  limited  area ;  but  in 
the  niycetes,  or  howling-  monkey,  they  communicate 
with  several  large  pouches  on  each  side  of  the  throat, 
and  with  excavations  in  the  body  of  the  tongue-bone, 
so  as  to  impart  to  the  cries  of  these  animals  a  degree 
of  resonance  which  renders  them  louder  than  the  roar- 
ing of  lions.  On  the  other  hand,  that  they  are  abso- 
lutely unessential  in  conferring  an  extraordinary  voice- 
power,  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  lion,  tiger,  ox, 
ami  many  other  animals  that  do  not  lack  in  this  respect, 
have  neither  ventricles  nor  ventricular  bands. 

The  Epiglottis. 

Viewed  with  the  laryngoscope,  the  epiglottis  pre- 
sents considerable  variability  of  size,  shape,  and  position 
in  different  persons.  Sometimes  it  forms  a  mere  pro- 
jection of  the  anterior  margin  of  the  larynx  of  less  than 
three-quarters  of  an  inch,  and  stands  erect  against  the 
back  of  the  tongue;  or  it  .may  extend  backwards  over 
the  larynx,  like  a  roof,  for  nearly  an  inch,  so  that  its 
surfaces  are  almost  horizontal.  It  may  appear  round. 
square,  or  folded  so  that  its  upper  edge-  resembles  a 

E 


50      PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE    VOCAL   ORGANS. 

horse-shoe.  In  singing  the  scale  it  seems  to  have  little 
or  no  proper  motion,  but  the  movements  of  the  larynx 
make  it  apparently  shift  its  place.  Approximation  of 
the  vocal  bands  draws  the  posterior  margin  of  the  larynx 
slightly  towards  it.  In  the  lowest  notes  the  larynx 
moves  downwards  and  forwards,  so  as  to  cause  it  to 
intercept  the  view,  whilst  in  the  upper  range  of  the 
chest-register  the  larynx  is  seen  to  pass  away  from  it  in 
a  direction  upwards  and  backwards  as  the  glottis  comes 
into  full  sight.  During  the  contraction  of  the  vestibule 
of  the  larynx,  of  which  it  forms  the  anterior  part,  in  the 
falsetto  scale  it  becomes  gradually  doubled  up,  and  its 
lateral  edges  approach  nearly  in  the  highest  notes.  At 
the  same  time  it  is  drawn  more  over  the  glottis  than  at 
the  top  of  the  chest-register,  but  if  naturally  erect  its 
upper  edge  remains  everted  towards  the  back  of  the 
tongue.  Being  closely  connected  with  this  organ,  it 
follows  its  movements  during  articulation.  Thus  it  is 
depressed  when  the  vowel-sound  aw  (as  in  laiv)  is  pro- 
nounced, and  drawn  away  from  the  glottis  by  the  enun- 
ciation of  ee  (as  in  feel). 

This  valve  is  capable  of  closing  the  upper  outlet  of 
the  larynx,  to  which  it  acts  as  a  kind  of  operculum  or 
lid,  if  pressed  down  upon  it,  as  occurs  during  the  act 
of  swallowing,  when  the  larynx  is  drawn  upwards  and 
forwards,  so  that  the  base  of  the  tongue  rolls  over  it. 
Food  and  drink  are  thus  prevented  from  passing  into 
the  windpipe.  Such  is  certainly  the  physiological  pur- 
pose of  the  epiglottis ;  but  in  those  animals  which  have 
well-developed  ventricular  bands  it  appears  to  be  super- 
fluous, unless  we  can  regard  it  as  a  vocal  appendage. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OP    THE   VOCAL   ORGANS.      51 

The  presence,  however,  "Can  ample  epiglottis  in  animals 
for  the  most  part  voiceless,  such  as  marsupials  (kanga- 
roo, etc.),  and  cetaceans  (whale,  dugong,  etc.),  argues 
against  this  supposition,  which  is  further  controverted 
by  its  small  size  and  comparative  immobility  during 
phonation  in  man.  It  has  been  suggested  that  it  acts 
as  a  '  tuner,'  a  resonator,  and  that  it  modifies  the  timbre 
of  the  voice.  But  the  voeal  reeds,  with  almost  infini- 
tesimal powers  of  altering  their  tension  and  dimension-. 
do  not  seem  to  stand  in  need  of  such  a  tuner,  whilst 
their  great  resonator  is  the  concavity  of  the  hard-palate, 
the  roof  of  the  mouth.  It  may  modify  timbre,  and  give 
something  of  the  peculiarity  of  voice  by  which  Ave 
recognise  different  persons,  as  when  it  is  large  and 
depressed,  or  small  and  erect ;  but,  apart  from  lingual 
articulation,  it  has  no  motion  to  enable  it  to  vary  the 
quality  of  any  particular  note.  It  certainly,  however, 
has  the  office  of  directing  the  sound-waves  against  the 
baek  of  the  pharynx,  to  be  thence  reflected,  under  the 
variable  arch  of  the  soft-palate,  on  to  the  hard-palate, 
especially  when  the  most  resonant  vowel-sounds,  such 
as  ww  (as  in  law),  are  pronounced. 

The  Pharynx, 

The  -hare  taken  by  this  cavity  in  voice-production 
is  scarcely  capable  of  separai  e  definition.  The  vibrations 
of  the  vocal  reeds  do  not  appear  to  derive  any  special 
modification  from  it,  except  in  the  utterance  of  certain 
guttural  speech-sounds.  It  allows  of  the  extrinsic 
movements  of  the  larynx  necessary  for  the  elaboration 

1  2 


52      PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE    VOCAL   ORGANS. 

of  a  musical  scale.  The  tongue  encroaches  on  or  recedes 
from  it  during  articulation  of  vowels.  Under  ordinary 
circumstances  it  extends,  with  the  laryngeal  vestibule, 
directly  from  the  vocal  reeds  to  the  back  entrance  of 
the  nasal  channels ;  but  by  the  action  of  the  soft-palate 
it  may  be  caused  to  pass  most  directly  into  the  mouth, 
with  which  it  usually  forms  a  single  resonance  chamber. 
The  alterations  of  its  capacity,  so  evident  to  any  one 
who  observes  it  during  singing,  induced  some  former 
physiologists  and  physicists  to  believe  that  it  bore  the 
same  relation  to  the  voice  as  the  tube  of  a  flute  or 
clarionet  to  the  sounds  generated  at  the  embouchure. 
A  knowledge  of  the  acoustic  laws  of  sonorous  vibrations 
in  tubes  and  cavities  has,  however,  reduced  this  hypo- 
thesis to  a  nullity. 

The  Mouth. 

The  most  harmonious  tones  of  the  voice  are  obtained 
by  the  action  of  the  mouth,  as  resonance  chamber.  In 
this  cavity  the  power  and  volume  of  the  voice  are  greatly 
augmented  by  secondary  vibrations,  to  the  formation  of 
which  the  solid  arch  of  the  hard-palate  mainly  contri^ 
butes.  The  highly  composite  clang  proceeding  from  the 
vocal  reeds  is  reinforced  in  those  upper  partial  tones 
which  are  nearest  and  most  consonant  to  the  prime, 
namely,  its  octave,  the  fifth  above  that,  and  the  second 
octave,  etc.  Such  is  probably  the  succession  of  over- 
tones which  are  brought  out  distinctly  when  the  most 
resonant  of  vowel-sounds  are  pronounced  or  sung.  But 
the  reinforcement  of  the  upper  partial  tones  is  altered 
by  every  motion  of  the  tongue,  lips,  etc.,  during  articu- 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE    VOCAL  ORGANS.      53 

lation,  ami  Inner  results  a  pleasing  diversity  of  timbre 
which  prevents  the  ear  being  fatigued  by  monotonous 
repetition. 

The  Nose. 

The  office  of  the  nasal  cavity  in  phonation  is  also  to 
give  increased  intensity  to  upper  partial  tones.  Con- 
sisting, however,  of  a  number  of  small  channels  which 
have  little  intercommunication,  its  own  proper  sounds 
must  he  high  and  shrill.  The  overtones,  therefore,  that 
it  can  reinforce  lie  generally  at  a  great  distance  above 
tlw  prime  tone  of  the  vocal  reeds  ;  not  nearer  probably 
in  any  pari  of  the  chest-register,  than  the  eighth  or  tenth 
in  the  harmonic  series,  i.e.,  more  than  three  octaves 
from  the  fundamental  note  of  the  voice.  Beyond  this 
height  the  rapidly  diminishing  intervals  between  the 
successive  overtones  soon  render  them  dissonant,  both 
with  each  other  and  with  the  prime  tone.  When,  there- 
fore, the  voice  resounds  fully  in  the  nose,  the  funda- 
mental note  is  impoverished  and  nearly  drowned  by  the 
predominance  of  high  partial  tones  Hence  the  well- 
known  discordance,  the  jarring  '  twang,'  of  an  exalted 
nasal  intonation  which,  disagreeable  in  speaking,  is 
utterly  ruinous  to  melodious  singing.  A  due  proportion, 
however,  of  the  nasal  harmonics  must  generally  be 
present  (invariably  with  m  or  ri),  and  when  the  gap  is 
bridged  over  by  a  proper  preponderance  of  oral  reso- 
nance they  are  of  real  value  in  adding  to  the  brilliancy 
and  variety  of  vocal  timbre.1 

1  The  cavities  in  the  bones  about  the  nose,  viz.,  the  antrum,  and 


54      PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE   VOCAL   ORGANS. 

The  Soft-Palate. 

The  use  of  this  pendulous  and  mobile  portion  of  the 
palate  is  to  cut  off  the  communication  between  the 
upper  part  of  the  pharynx  and  the  nasal  cavity  during 
the  act  of  swallowing  or  in  phonation.  To  effect  this 
purpose  its  muscles  draw  it  backwards  and  slightly  up- 
wards till  it  meets  the  back  wall  of  the  pharynx-  Whilst 
singing  a  scale,  this  movement  goes  on  progressively, 
from  the  deepest  chest-note  to  the  highest  limit  of  the 
falsetto,  when  the  retraction  is  nearly  complete.  A  suf- 
ficient opening,  however,  remains  almost  to  the  last  to 
allow  of  some  nasal  resonance.  For  every  note  of  dif- 
ferent pitch,  therefore,  the  soft-palate  occupies  a  sepa- 
rate position,  which  is  determined  by  the  direction  of 
the  sound  issuing  from  the  glottis.  In  ascending  the 
scale,  the  successive  changes  of  place  of  the  larynx  tend 
to  project  the  column  of  aerial  vibrations,  so  that  they 
rebound  from  the  back  of  the  pharynx  more  and  more 
vertically  upwards  towards  the  posterior  nares.  Step 
by  step  the  motions  of  the  soft-palate  counteract  this 
tendency  and  divert  the  course  of  the  sound-waves  to 
the  arch  of  the  hard-palate.  It  is  quite  possible  to  sing- 
all  the  chest-notes  without  moving  the  soft-palate,  but, 
as  a  consequence,  there  is  a  great  loss  of  resonance  and 
an  insupportable  predominance  of  nasal  timbre.  The 
effect  is  somewhat  similar  to  blowing  a  trumpet  from 
which  the  bell  has  been  removed ;    a  '  tin-kettle,'  or 

the  frontal  and  sphenoidal  sinuses,  have  a  certain,  though  undeter- 
mined, effect  on  voice.  When  they  are  undeveloped,  as  in  many  of 
the  Australian  aborigines,  a  noticeable  want  of  vocal  resonance  has 
been  observed. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF   THE    VOCAL   ORGANS.      SS 

•  cracked-pot '  tone  is  the  result.  But  when  the  falsetto 
scale  is  reached  it  is  no  longer  practicable  to  restrain 
the  retraction  of  the  soft-palate,  although  these  notes 
would  probably  suffer  least  from  a  surplus  of  nasal  har- 
monics. The  action  of  the  palato-pharyngeus  muscle 
seems  indispensable,  in  order  to  approximate  the  wings 
of  the  thyroid  cartilage,  and  consequently  the  falsetto 
register  cannot  be  produced  without  the  palatal  motion-. 
In  cases,  however,  where  the  soft-palate  has  been  de- 
stroyed by  disease,  the  power  of  producing  the  falsetto 
notes  is  not  abolished,  as  the  lateral  parts  of  the  palato- 
pharyngeus  and  the  inferior  constrictor  are  still  able  to 
fulfil  their  office.  It  is  thus  demonstrated  that  the 
gradual  occlusion  of  the  posterior  nares  in  this  register 
is  merely  an  accidental  phenomenon  without  any  acous- 
tic necessity  for  its  occurrence. 

Compass  of  the  Voice — Individual  and  Sexual 
plfferexces registers. 

The  compass  of  the  voice  from  the  lowest  note  of  the 
male  to  the  highest  of  the  female  includes  about  four 
octaves,  viz.,  from  Ex  to  c"'.~  Many  gifted  singers  can, 
however,  exceed  both  these  extremes  by  several  tones, 
and  males  may  even  descend  to  ,jF,3  whilst  females  can 
sometimes    attain   f"94   a  range  of  five  octaves.     The 


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56      PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE    VOCAL    ORGANS. 

voices  of  individuals,  of  infinite  variety  as  regards  tim- 
bre, present  also  numerous  diversities  in  compass,  but 
they  can  always  be  relegated  to  some  one  of  six  different 
classes,  the  precise  extent  of  which  is  not  strained. 
Men's  voices  are  termed  bass,  baritone,  and  tenor;  and 
women's  contralto,  mezzo-soprano,  and  soprano,  in 
regular  succession,  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the 
vocal  scale.1  The  bass  and  soprano  are  more  than  an 
octave  apart,  whilst  the  tenor  and  contralto  lie  for  the 
most  part  over  the  same  notes.  The  range  of  each  kind 
of  voice  is  shown  in  the  adjoining  table,  according  to  the 
conventional  acceptance.  The  compass  here  apportioned 
to  the  various  voices  is,  however,  only  such  as  the  com- 
poser would  regard  when  writing  music  for  different 
classes  of  singers,  and  is  far  from  representing  the 
physiological  limits  of  each  kind.  From  merely  acous- 
tic considerations,  for  instance,  we  might  suppose  that 
the  bass  voice  would  be  capable  of  producing  not  only 
the  deepest  notes,  but  also  those  of  the  highest  pitch, 
on  the  same  principle  that  an  imitation  of  the  violin  can 
be  performed  on  the  violoncello,  though  the  notes  are 
not  of  the  same  musical  value  as  the  proper  tones  of  the 
instrument.  In  either  case,  the  only  faculty  required  is 
an  unlimited  power  of  shortening  and  tensing  the  strings 
or  vocal  reeds.  The  truth  of  this  hypothesis  is  exem- 
plified,  as  regards  voice,  in  the  fact  that   a   bass   or 

1  In  determining  to  what  class  a  voice  belongs,  attention  is  often 
directed  more  to  its  timbre  than  to  its  actual  compass.    A  first-rate 

baritone,  for  instance,  may  be  able  to  deliver  g'  S=^—  from  the 

chest,  whilst  a  good  tenor  may  be  unable  to  rise  beyond  that  note. 
But  an  unmistakable  difference  of  timbre  at  once  decides  the  question. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE   VOCAL   ORGANS.      57 


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58      PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE   VOCAL  ORGANS. 

baritone  singer  may  have  such  an  extent  of  falsetto 
notes  as  to  be  able  to  counterfeit  the  vocal  performances 
of  a  soprano.1  Similarly  the  male  alto  voices  employed 
in  cathedrals  for  choral  service  are  generally,  if  not 
always,  of  bass  or  baritone  range  fundamentally,  but 
with  an  unusual  facility  for  falsetto  singing.  In  these 
instances  the  upper  voice  may  embrace  ten  or  twelve 
notes.2 

Male  and  female  voices  differ  not  merely  in  degree, 
i.e.,  in  lower  or  higher  pitch,  but  also  in  kind.  They 
are  characterised  by  a  peculiarity  of  timbre,  so  that  the 
dullest  ear  is  in  no  danger  of  mistaking  a  man's  voice 
for  that  of  a  woman,  even  on  notes  of  the  same  pitch. 
The  falsetto  tones  of  a  male  voice  have  little  resemblance 
to  their  equivalents  in  the  musical  scale  when  sung  by 
a  female,  and  the  woman's  voice  is  remarkably  more 
brilliant  and  full  in  its  sound.  The  causes  here  are 
obscure,  but  one  of  the  greatest  is  undoubtedly  superior 
resonance.  The  air-chambers  connected  with  the  female 
larynx  are  better  adapted  to  reinforce  high  tones.  The 
circumstance  that  the  retraction  of  the  soft-palate  cuts 
off  the  nasal  part  of  the  vocal  tube  in  woman  to  a 
lesser  extent  for  notes  of  similar  pitch  than  in  man  may 
have  some  influence.  But  principally  we  must  regard 
the  fact  that  the  female  larynx  is  formed  for  a  treble 
instrument  and  produces  tones  naturally  and  with  ease 

1  '  Dans  une  scene  rfe  la  Prova  cVnn  opera  seria,  Lablache,  irni- 
tant  un  soprano,  chante  une  cavatine  entiere  en  voix  de  fausset.' 
Segond,  Hygiene  dii  Chanteur,  Paris,  1846,  p.  86. 

2  From  a  ja=^p  to  d"  g5=^= 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF   THE    VOCAL   ORGANS.      59 

which  i  lie  male  organ  can  only  emit,  if  at  all,  with  more 
or  less  of  a  strain.  A  man  singing  in  falsetto  is, there- 
fore, in  a  position  somewhat  similar  to  a  violinist  who 
should  endeavour  to  draw  the  highest  notes  from  the 

fourth  or  lowest  string  of  his  instrument. 

Having  dealt  with  the  question  as  to  the  mechanical 
formation  of  the  chest  and  falsetto  notes,  it  remain-  to 
consider  at  what  level  of  the  voice  the  break1  between 
the  two  usually  occurs.  We  should  naturally  expect 
that  this  point  would  bear  a  similar  relation  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  chest-register  in  every  individual,  not  occur- 
ring at  any  determinate  point  in  the  musical  scale,  but 
movable  according  to  the  notes  embraced  within  the 
compass  of  each  particular  class  of  voice.  Anatomical 
and  physiological  observations  point  clearly  to  such  a 
conclusion.  Amongst  singing-masters,  however,  it  is 
usually  considered  that  the  falsetto  scale  commences  at 
or  near  g',2  whatever  the  kind  of  voice  and  whether  the 
singer  be  male  or  female.  I  do  not  know  whence  this 
hypothesis  originated,  but  it  appears  to  rest  on  the  basis 
thai  in  women's  voices  there  is  often  a  break  more  or 
less  pronounced  in  that  position,  and  a  marked  differ- 
ence of  timbre  between  the  ascending  and  descending- 
series  of  notes.  In  many  cases,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
break  and  change  of  timbre  are  scarcely  perceptible.  It 
is  difficult  to  believe  that  the  finest  notes  of  the  soprano 

1  The  falsetto  register  can  generally  be  carried  down  two  or 
three  notes  below  the  highest  level  of  the  chest-scale.  Some  tones 
can,  therefore,  be  produced  with  either  quality  of  voice.  In  this 
position  the  so-called  '  mixed  voice  '  is  said  to  occur. 


6o      PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE   VOCAL   ORGANS. 

voice  are  produced  in  a  manner  strictly  analogous  to  the 
falsetto  tones  of  the  male,  and  the  fact  that  the  female 
voice  presents  a  second  break  near  its  upper  limit,  where 
the  so-called  '  head  '  voice  begins,  renders  the  proposi- 
tion extremely  doubtful.  Such  a  view  would  also  allow 
no  falsetto  notes  to  a  bass  singer  who  could  not  rise 
beyond  cV,1  from  the  chest,  whilst  it  would  give  only  three 
or  four  chest-notes  to  the  soprano.  As  might  be  expected, 
this  conception  of  the  registers  is  involved  in  some  con- 
troversy, even  amongst  teachers  of  music,  some  of  whom 
argue  for  the  physiological  view  of  the  subject.2  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  there  are  differences,  as  yet  un- 
defined, in  the  manner  of  forming  or  managing  the  vocal 
tones  habitual  to  the  two  sexes,  which  prevent  their 
voices  being  reduced  to  one  category  with  the  same  pre- 
cision as  a  pair  of  musical  instruments,  identical  except 
as  regards  size  and  pitch.  Further  investigations  in  this 
direction  are  much  needed. 

Akticulating  Insteument. 

Speech  is  produced  by  modifying  the  capacity  of 
the  vocal  tube  and  by  altering  the  size  and  position  of, 
or  entirely  closing  its  outlets,  through  the  instrumen- 
tality of  the  mobile  parts  contained  within  it  or  forming- 
its  boundaries.  The  various  sounds  or  phases  of  sounds, 
which  are  joined  together  in  almost  endless  combina- 
tions to   build  up  words,  are   represented  in  written 


-a>— 


2  For  a  detailed  argument  on  this  point,  see  Lunn,  The  Philo- 
sophy of  Voice,  1875. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE   VOCAL   ORGANS.      61 

language  by  Letters,  and  classified  according  to  the 
peculiarities  of  their  formation.  Almost  at  firs!  con- 
sideration Letters  fall  naturally  into  two  greal  divisions. 

The  first  comprises  those  that  consist  of  continuous 
si  mi  ids  of  characteristic  timbre,  called  vowels;  and  the 
si  cond  embraces  the  series  of  interruptions  or  complete 
stoppages,  enunciative  or  terminal,  of  the  current  of 
breath  or  sound,  named  consonants. 

Nature  of  Vowel-Sounds  and  Mechanism  of 
their  Production. 

In  1780  the  Imperial  Academy  of  St.  Petersburg 
awarded  a  prize  to  Kratzenstein  for  an  essay  on  the 
nature  of  vowels,  illustrated  by  a  reed  instrument  of 
purely  empirical  design  which  sounded  a  recognisable 
imitation  of  them.  About  the  same  time  Kempelen  l 
pursued  an  inquiry  of  a  similar  kind,  and  published  a 
treatise  containing  his  results.  In  1828  Willis,  treat- 
ing the  question  more  scientifically,  made  a  series  of 
experiments  by  attaching  cylindrical  chambers  to  a 
reed-pipe,  and  showed  that  the  prime  tone  could  be 
thus  modified,  so  as  to  produce  a  number  of  sounds 
closely  resembling  the  vowels  of  speech.  Some  few 
years  later  a  consideration  of  these  phenomena  led 
Wheatstone  to  suggest  that  in  such  instances  the 
vowels  are  formed  by  the  feeble  vibrations  arising  in 
the  short  tube,  which,  most  markedly  when  its  reso- 

1  These  were  not,  however,  thi   B  y  attempts  to  construct 

a  talking  machine.  Albertus  Magnus,  Friar  Bacon,  the  Abbfi  Biical, 
and  others  made,  or  arc  accredited  with  having  made,  heads  that 
cuuld  utter  sentences. 


62      PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE    VOCAL   ORGANS. 

nance  corresponds  to  one  of  the  multiples  (i.e.,  over- 
tones) of  the  prime  tone  given  by  the  reed,  confers  the 
effect  of  a  superadded  musical  note.  A  further  step 
was  gained  in  1857  by  Donders,  who  discovered  that 
for  the  various  vowels  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  is  tuned 
to  different  pitches  by  observing  the  whistling  noise 
produced  in  whispering. 

Subsequently  many  investigators  directed  their  at- 
tention to  the  subject,  but  for  the  most  complete 
experimental  elucidation  hitherto  we  are  indebted  to 
Helmholtz.  According  to  this  physicist,  the  essential 
origin  of  vowel  timbre  is  the  reinforcement  of  a  funda- 
mental tone  by  the  superadded  note  of  a  resonance 
chamber,  which  for  the  same  vowel  always  yields  the 
same  note,  although  the  fundamental  tone  may  under- 
go a  considerable,  but  not  unlimited,  change  of  pitch. 
When  the  note  of  the  resonance  chamber  corresponds 
to  one  of  the  partials  of  the  fundamental  tone,  the  vowel 
is  best  heard  ;  but  in  proportion  as  it  recedes  from  this 
measure  the  vowel  loses  character,  until  it  becomes  im- 
perceptible. 

Thus,  in  the  case  of  spoken  vowels,  the  pharynx  and 
mouth  constitute  a  short  tube,  which  resounds  during 
phonation,  not  so  as  to  yield  a  distinctly  separate  musical 
note,  but  only  so  that  a  weak  secondary  sound  of  deter- 
minate pitch  is  heard  blended  with  the  laryngeal  tones. 
Within  certain  limits  the  capacity  of  this  vocal  tube  can 
be  altered  to  any  required  extent  by  the  action  of  the 
tongue  and  lower-jaw,  with  the  effect  of  lowering  or 
heightening  its  proper  note,  the  pitch  of  which  is  still 
further  governed  by  the  size  of  the  orifice  circumscribed 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF   THE   VOCAL   ORGANS.      63 

by  the  lips.    The  smaller  the  aperture  of  the  mouth,  the 
lower  the  resonance  pitch  of  its  cavity. 

For  the  vowel  U  (00  in  pool)  the  vocal  tube  is  ar- 
ranged to  give  its  lowest  pitch  of  resonance  ;  the  tongue 
is  collected  into  the  smallest  space  at  the  bottom  of  the 
mouth,  and  the  lips  are  protruded  so  as  to  lengthen  the 
cavity,  at  the  same  time  that  they  leave  a  narrower 
opening  than  for  any  other  vowel.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances the  shape  of  the  vocal  tube  corresponds  to 
that  of  a  bottle  with  a  small  orifice  and  without  a  neck. 
For  0  (0  in  note)  the  lips  retract  and  enlarge  the  open- 
ing, so  that  the  pitch  of  cavity  is  considerably  raised. 
For  A  (a  in  father)  the  oral  aperture  is  still  further  in- 
creased in  size,  and  for  A  (a  in  bath)  the  mouth  is  wide 
open.  The  elevation  of  the  resonance  pitch  of  the  vocal 
tube,  taken  as  a  whole,  has  now  been  brought  to  its  maxi- 
mum, and  beyond  this  point  we  pass  into  another  regis- 
ter, so  to  speak,  of  vowel-sounds.  To  produce  A  (a  in 
fate)  a  part  of  the  tube  is  cut  off  by  the  tongue,  which 
was  quiescent  hitherto,  rising  near  to  the  hard-palate, 
whilst  the  lips  remain  so  far  separated  that  the  front  of 
the  mouth  loses  all  power  of  resonance.  The  shape  of 
the  vocal  tube  now  resembles  a  bottle  with  a  narrow  and 
rather  long  neck,  as  the  tongue  forms  with  the  roof  of  the 
mouth  an  elongated  channel  which  leads  back  to  the  more 
capacious  pharynx.  As  a  consequence  of  this  adjustment 
of  the  articulating  apparatus,  a  double  vowel  resonance 
arises,  because  a  comparatively  low  tone  is  generated  in 
the  pharyngea  cavity  and  a  higher  one  in  the  narrow 
pipe  which  leads  out  of  it  in  front.  For  I  {ce  in  feet) 
the  tongue  is  applied  to  the  hard-palate,  so  as  to  reduce 


64      PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE    VOCAL   ORGANS. 

the  anterior  channel  to  the  smallest  possible  dimensions, 
and  the  highest  limit  of  vowel  resonance  is  reached. 
Diphthongs  are  sounded  by  the  rapid  consecutive  forma- 
tion of  two  different  capacities,  and  other  vowels  (such 
as  are  used  in  Continental  languages)  are  obtained  by 
various  gradations  of  the  positions  described.  In  the 
speech  of  every  nation,  and  even  in  that  of  provincials 
and  individuals,  distinctions  of  vowel  timbre  are  found, 
which,  of  course,  depend  on  the  production  of  diversities 
in  the  size  and  resonance  of  the  vocal  tube.  The  vowel- 
sounds  distinguishable  as  separated  by  the  ear  may, 
therefore,  be  considered  as  more  numerous  than  conso- 
nants, although  in  each  language  they  are  always  rela- 
tively few. 

Various  efforts  have  been  made  to  determine  the 
precise  note  to  which  the  vocal  cavity  resounds  for  each 
vowel  as  pronounced  by  the  natives  of  different  countries. 
The  results  for  vowel-sounds,  the  same  or  almost  similar, 
coincide  very  nearly  according  to  some  authors,  but  di- 
verge considerably  according  to  others.  The  best  and 
most  trustworthy  experiments  have  been  performed  by 
Helmholtz  by  means  of  his  resonators,  which  he  has 
employed  to  ascertain  what  upper  partials  are  rein- 
forced  most  strongly  whilst  different  vowels  are  sung. 
He  also  uses  tuning-forks,  which,  on  being  struck,  are 
held  close  to  the  opening  of  the  lips  when  the  mouth  is 
shaped  for  the  emission  of  each  vowel.  The  vocal  tube 
thus  acts  as  a  resonance  chamber,  which  will  reinforce 
sympathetically  the  vibrations  of  a  tuning-fork  that 
sounds  the  same  note,  speaking  for  itself,  as  it  were,  in 
this  way  as  to  its  own  pitch.     After  repeated  observa- 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE   VOCAL   ORGANS.     65 

tions  by  the  combined  aid  of  both  these  methods,  which, 
however,  in  the  case  of  the  highesl  and  lowest  vowels, 
had  to  be  supplemented  by  aural  observation,  Helmholtz 
is  Inclined  to  ii\  the  pitch  of  (Ik*  mouth  for  the  various 
vowels  used  by  the  North  Germans  according  to  the 
following  notation : — 


Helmholtz  has  found  the  pitcli  of  the  mouth  for 
the  same  vowels  invariable  in  all  ages  and  sexes.  In 
women  and  children  the  want  of  capacity  of  the  vocal 
tube  is  compensated  by  diminishing  the  opening  at  the 
lips. 

An  interesting  point  in  the  consideration  of  the  sub- 
ject is  the  existence  of  an  antagonism  between  certain 
combinations  of  vowel  and  laryngeal  sounds.  Helmholtz, 
whilst  confessing  the  incompleteness  of  his  observations 
on  this  side,  advances  the  proposition,  implied  above  in 
the  enunciation  of  his  theory,  that  particular  vowels 
cannot  be  sounded  properly  on  certain  notes  of  the  voice 
because  of  an  acoustic  difficulty  in  producing  a  vowel 
resonance  concomitantly  with  a  laryngeal  tone,  which 
does  not  afford  it  a  sufficient  base  in  the  natural  series 
of  partials.     The  evidence  is  too  incomplete  to  follow 

1  The  first  six  of  these  vowels  arc  most  nearly  represented  in 
English  by  the  sis  described  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  in  the 
order.   Thelasl  two  are  unpronounceable  in  English,  and  correspond 
nearly,  0  to  the  French  ev  vapevple,  and  U  to  it  in  jut. 

E 


66      PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE   VOCAL  ORGANS. 

this  question  further  here,  and  it  will  suffice  to  allude  to 
the  well-known  fact,  to  singers  at  least,  that  all  voices 
find  a  difficulty  in  forming  vowels  and  syllables  at  the 
extremes  of  their  compass,  From  my  own  observation, 
I  am  led  to  conclude  that  the  obstacle  in  this  case  is  in 
great  part,  if  not  altogether,  of  a  mechanical  nature. 
Pronunciation  is  most  distinct  at  the  level  of  the  speak- 
ing voice,  and  becomes  imperfect  according  as  the  laryn- 
geal notes  move  away  from  this  pitch  in  an  upper  or 
lower  direction.  In  the  lowest  notes  the  contraction  of 
one  group  of  the  extrinsic  muscles  of  the  larynx  fixes 
the  base  of  the  tongue  and  greatly  impedes  the  motions 
required  for  articulation.  In  the  highest  notes  the 
tongue  is  also  tied  down  by  muscular  activity,  whilst  the 
constriction  of  the  pharynx  and  isthmus  of  the  fauces 
hinders  still  more  the  various  and  rapid  modifications 
of  the  vocal  tube  necessary  for  fluent  speech. 

Consonants — Their  Formation  and  Classification. 

Consonants,  as  their  name  signifies,  can  only  be 
sounded  in  conjunction  with  a  vowel.  They  comprise  in 
fact  a  number  of  methods,  each  characteristic,  of  put- 
ting on  or  cutting  off  more  or  less  completely  the 
current  of  vocal  sound,  modified  to  the  timbre  of  some 
one  of  the  various  vowels.  The  most  obvious  means  of 
classifying  consonants  is  derived  from  acoustic  considera- 
tions, and  from  this  point  of  view  they  admit  of  division 
into  explosives,  aspirates,  resonants,  and  vibratives. 
They  may  be  further  subdivided  by  regarding  the  ana- 
tomical disposition  of  the  articulating  apparatus  required 
for  their  enunciation.     Hence  they  are  also  arranged  as 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF   THE    VOCAL    ORGANS.      67 

labials,   dentals,  and    gutturals.      Finally,   consonants 
sa  a    third   characteristic,  which   admits  of  their 
being  distinguished  as  breathed  and  voiced. 

1.  1.  [n  Explosives  the  vocal  tube  is,  for  a  moment, 
completely  closed  at  some  pari  of  its  course  during 
phonation.  Their  enunciation  is  therefore  accompanied 
by  a  kind  of  burst  or  explosion,  occasioned  by  the  sudden 
release  of  the  confined  airwhichis  forced  against  thepoint 
of  constriction  by  the  chest.  The  explosive  consonants 
form  a  class  specially  distinct  from  the  rest,  which,  in 
opposition,  may  be  grouped  together  under  the  term 
continuous. 

2.  In  Aspirates  the  vocal  tube  is  only  partially 
stopped  and  the  breath  pours  ont,  accompanied  by  a 
faint  wind-rush,  through  the  point  of  constriction. 

3.  In  Resonants  the  vocal  tube  is  completely  closed 
at  some  position  of  its  main,  i.e.,  oral,  channel  in  the 
same  way  as  occurs  during  the  formation  of  explosives, 
In  it  a  free  secondary  passage  is  still  left  by  the  inaction 
of  the  soft-palate,  and  the  voice  passes  out  with  a  pecu- 
liar resonance  through  the  nose.  These  consonants  might 
also,  therefore,  be  called  nasals. 

4.  In  V-ibratvues  the  action  of  the  articulating  appa- 
ratus is  a  combination  of  that  required  in  pronouncing 
explosives  and  aspirates ;  i.e.,  at  one  moment  the  breath 
is  stopped,  and  at  the  next  allowed  to  force  its  w;i\ 
through,  in  continued  alternation.  They  consist,  there- 
fore,of  a  series  of  explosions,  and  the  opposing  surfaces 
at  the  point  of  constriction  act  as  membranous  reeds 
(like  the  vocal  reeds  themselves),  which,  however, 
vibrate  too  slowly  and  momentarily  to  give  the  sensa- 

r  2 


63       PHYSIOLOGY   OF  THE    VOCAL   ORGANS. 

tion  of  a  musical  note. .    A  kind  of  l  purr  '  is  all  that  is 
heard. 

II.  1.  In  labials  the  vocal  tube  is  closed  by  the 
approximation  of  the  lips,  or  by  the  lower  lip  being 
pressed  against  the  upper  row  of  teeth. 

2.  In  dentals  the  tip  of  the  tongue  is  pressed  against 
the  back  of  the  upper  front  teeth,  or  against  the  part  of 
the  hard-palate  which  borders  on  them. 

3.  In  gutturals  the  back  of  the  tongue  is  approxi- 
mated to  the  soft-palate. 

III.  The  difference  between  breathed  and  voiced 
consonants  is,  that  the  former  are  accompanied  at  the 
moment  of  their  pronunciation  merely  by  a  wind-rush, 
whilst  the  latter  have  a  base  of  audible  laryngeal  vibra- 
tion. These  qualities  are  not  so  easily  determined  as 
the  distinguishing  characteristics  between  the  various 
consonants  of  the  explosive  class  on  account  of  their 
momentary  duration,  but  continuous  consonants  can 
easily  be  recognised  as  breathed  or  voiced  by  attentively 
observing  their  sound  when  prolonged  indefinitely. 
Testing  in  this  way,  for  example,  S  and  Z,  the  former, 
when  prolonged,  is  found  to  consist  of  a  mere  'hiss,' 
whilst  the  latter  has  a  strong  foundation  of  tone  proceed- 
ing from  the  larynx.  Otherwise  their  formation  is  pre- 
cisely similar. 

After  this  description  of  the  various  qualities  of 
consonants  the  following  table,  showing  them  ranged 
according  to  their  respective  groups,  will  be  intelli- 
gible : — 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE    VOCAL   ORGANS.      69 


EXPLOSIVES. 

Breathed. 

Voiced, 

Labials 

P 

B 

Dentals 

T 

D 

Gutturals 

K 
ASPIRATES. 

a 

Broiithcd. 

Voiced. 

•  •  • 

F 

V 

Labials 

Dental,  ...  {  (h^'|^  e)  }  Z,L,J,Th  (soft, 

Gutturals       ...  (    Ch  (Gtatman,    1    f  Y  (beginning 
(xreek  %)        \    I      a  word) 

RESONANTS. 

All  voiced. 

Labial        ...        ...         ...        ...       M 

Dental        N 

Guttural NG 

VIBEATIVES. 

Labial  (not  used  as  a  definite  letter). 
Dental        ...         ...         ...         ...       1\ 

Guttural     ...         ...         ...         ...       K 

A  few  words  of  explanation  are  required  respecting 
some  letters  which  are  omitted  in  this  table,  and  also  as 
to  some  others  which  have  special  characteristics. 

H  is  a  breathed  aspirate,  but  differs  from  all  other 
letters  in  being  formed  in  the  larynx  itself  by  the  glottis, 
narrowed  so  as  to  produce  a  wind-rush,  but  not  suffi- 
ciently so  as  to  allow  the  vocal  reeds  to  be  thrown  into 
vibration.     It  is  therefore  called  the  spiritus  asper,  or 


70      PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE    VOCAL   ORGANS. 

i  rough  breathing ' — denoted  in  Grreek  by  a  comma 
turned  the  reverse  way  (') — whilst  words  beginning  with 
a  vowel  that  are  pronounced  without  this  preparatory 
wind-rush  are  said  to  have  the  spiritus  lenis,  or  'smooth 
breathing.' 

C  is  redundant,  having  at  one  time  the  power  of  K, 
at  another  that  of  S ;  also  Q,  which  is  equivalent  to  K, 
but  is  only  used  before  the  vowel  U  ;  and  X,  which  is 
the  same  as  Ks  at  the  end  of  a  syllable,  and  as  Z  when 
beginning  a  word. 

L  is  formed  by  the  passage  of  the  mouth  being  left 
permeable  at  both  sides  of  the  tongue  whilst  the  centre 
is  stopped  by  the  tip  of  the  organ  being  pressed  against 
the  hard-palate.  The  English  L  is  always  voiced  ;  the 
breathed  L  is  used  by  the  Welsh  and  is  represented  by 
the  LI,  so  well  known  in  their  local  names  of  places. 

Sh  is  the  breathed  equivalent  of  the  voiced  J,  as  it 
occurs  in  the  French  word  jamais. 

Th  is  formed  by  placing  the  front  edge  of  the  tongue 
between  the  two  rows  of  teeth ;  the  voiced  Th  would  be 
more  decidedly  represented  by  Dh.  They  can  be  sounded 
less  distinctly  by  pressing  the  tip  of  the  tongue  against 
the  back  of  the  upper  front  teeth,  when  they  tend 
towards  S  and  Z. 

The  English  Ch  is  not  a  guttural  aspirate,  but  a 
consonantal  diphthong,  sounding  when  breathed  as  TSh, 
when  voiced  as  DZh  or  rather  DJ.  The  latter  is  the 
sound  of  the  English  Gf  soft,  and  also  of  J. 

The  dental  E  is  produced  by  trilling  the  tip  of  the 
tongue  against  the  hard  -palate  at  the  rate  of  about  thirty 
vibrations  in  the  second ;  the  guttural  K  is  formed  by 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE   VOCAL  ORGANS.      71 

the  uvula  vibrating  aboul   ni  n«t  .en  times  iii  (he  second 
against  the  back  of  I  he  tongue.1 

In  whispering  the  vocal  reeds  are  approximated  so 
as  to  produce  a  wind-rush,  like  the  spi'ritv.s  asper  con- 
tinued indefinitely.  This  suffices  to  render  recognisable 
the  pitch  of  the  note  to  which  the  mouth  is  tuned  for 
the  various  vowels,  and  articulation  is  carried  on  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  sonorous  phonation.  The  distinction, 
however,  between  breathed  and  voiced  consonants  is  for 
the  most  part  lost,  and  B  becomes  P ;  D,  T  ;  etc.,  if 
entirely  deprived  of  laryngeal  tone. 

1  Sec  Donders,  Be  Physiologic,  der  Spraaklanken,    Utrecht,  1870, 
p.  18. 


72 


CHAPTER   IV. 

THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  PRINCIPLES  OF   VOCAL 
CULTURE. 

management  of  the  motoe  element  (eespieation) — 
management  of  the  vibrating  element manage- 
ment of  the  eesonance  apparatus — management  of 
the  articulating  appaeatus. 

Management  of  the  Motor  Element. 

(Respiration). 
Measure  of  Breathing. 

During  quiet  respiration  the  chest  expands  and  con- 
tracts, i.e.,  we  breathe,  about  seventeen  times  in  every 
minute,  as  the  tidal  air  flows  in  and  out  of  the  lungs. 
Under  these  circumstances  inspiration  and  expiration 
occupy  each  less  than  two  seconds,  whilst  the  chest  is 
seldom  filled  to  its  vital  capacity  or  emptied  of  its 
residual  air.  But  phonation  completely  alters  this  pro- 
cess, because  voice  is  only  produced  during  expiration. 
In  speaking  or  in  singing  it  is  necessary,  for  the  con- 
tinuity of  sentences  or  phrases  of  music,  that  expiration 
should  be  prolonged  as  much  as  possible.  And  lest 
utterances  of  words  or  notes  intended  to  be  delivered  in 


PRINCIPLES  OF  VOCAL   CULTURE.  73 

close  succession  Bhould  be  separated  by  an  intolerable 
gap,  which  would  give  a  disjointed  character  to  a  whole 
speech  or  song,  it  is  also  required  that  inspiration  should 
be  performed  as  quickly  as  possible.  And  further,  as 
breath  cannot  be  drawn  in  at  any  moment,  but  ad- 
vantage must  be  taken  of  places  where  a  pause  occurs  in 
the  How  of  words  or  stream  of  melody,  the  acts  of  respi- 
rat  ion  during  phonation  are  of  unequal  length  in  contrast 
to  the  regularity  of  ordinary  breathing. 

Hence  we  see  that  in  speaking  or  singing  the  function 
of  respiration,  instead  of  being  carried  on  by  a  number 
of  short  breaths  in  which  inspiration  and  expiration  are 
duly  proportioned,  consists  of  a  few  long  breaths,  five 
or  six  in  the  minute,  or  even  less,  where  the  relations  of 
inspiration  and  expiration  are  very  disproportionate.  In 
such  cases  the  balance  as  regards  the  quantity  of  air 
required  by  the  lungs  for  their  vital  operations  is  main- 
tained by  supplying  them  more  copiously  each  time, 
and  the  chest  is  expanded  more  by  inspiration,  and 
generally  parts  with  some  of  its  residual  ah-  during  ex- 
piration. And  moreover  voice  production  occasions  a 
greater  activity  of  the  respiratory  muscles  during  expi- 
ration than  mere  breathing,  for  if  a  soft  tone  is  desired, 
the  tendency  of  the  chest-wralls  and  lungs  to  contract 
has  to  be  counterbalanced  by  the  action  of  the  muscles 
of  inspiration,  whilst  the  expiratory  muscles  are  called 
on  to  labour  vigorously  whenever  loudness  of  voice  is 
required. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  taking  of  breath  de- 
mands the  direct  attention  of  the  speaker  or  singer  at 
every  moment,  and  on  his  judgment  and  training  depend- 


74  PRINCIPLES  OF   VOCAL   CULTURE. 

the  accomplishment  of  the  function  with  ease  and  ab- 
sence of  embarrassment.  On  the  one  hand,  he  must  be 
quick  to  notice  the  occurrence  of  all  the  pauses,  and 
must  even  look  out  for  them  beforehand ;  and,  on  the 
other,  he  ought  to  be  well  acquainted  with  the  capacity 
of  his  own  chest  in  order  to  decide  when  the  oppor- 
tunities may  be  taken  and  when  he  can  afford  to  let 
them  pass  by.  It  is  in  music  especially  that  the  artistic 
management  of  the  breath  is  of  the  greatest  importance, 
because  in  speaking  the  attention  of  the  audience  is  not 
so  much  concentrated  on  sound  as  on  sense.  If  the 
singer  neglects  a  proper  occasion  he  may  have  to  squeeze 
all  the  residual  air  out  of  his  chest  before  he  can  find 
another,  or  else  mar  the  effect  of  a  phrase  of  melody  by 
a  cacophonous  gasp.  And  the  evil  may  not  terminate 
in  a  momentary  difficulty  if  the  chest  is  exhausted,  for 
it  must  afterwards  be  replenished  by  a  very  long  breath 
in  order  to  prevent  a  repetition  of  the  same  trouble. 
A  pause,  however,  which  will  allow  of  an  extraordinary 
inspiration  may  not  occur,  and  the  vocalist  may  be  kept 
for  the  rest  of  his'  song  breathing  at  the  lowest  limit  of 
his  respiratory  capacity.  Now  the  expulsion  of  the 
residual  air  from  the  chest  demands  a  considerable  mus- 
cular effort,  which  increases  up  to  the  point  where  the 
lungs  are  emptied  of  all  but  their  fixed  air.  In  such 
case  the  stream  of  air  cannot  be  propelled  with  sufficient 
steadiness  through  the  larynx,  a  wavering  sound  will  be 
produced,  and  it  will  be  evident  to  the  audience  that  the 
singer  is  straining  himself.  Such  muscular  straining, 
of  course,  soon  creates  fatigue,  and  as  the  consequence 
of  a  single  mistake  the  singer  may  not  regain  his  freedom 


PRINCIPLES  OJ-    VOCAL   CULTURE.  75 

of  breath  through  a  whole  song,  or  perhaps  during  the 
Length  of  an  evening.  And  such  awkward  management 
of  the  breath  maybe  habitual  with  vocalists  who  have 
not  had  tlir  advantage  of  technical  training,  and  thev 
may  exhaust  their  lungs  unnecessarily,  through  inex- 
perience, on  each  occasion  that  they  sing. 

The  converse  <>f  the  preceding  proposition  may  also 
be  considered,  viz.,  the  practice  of  filling  the  lungs  too 
full  at  each  inspiration,  and  singing  always  with  a  chest 
expanded  almost  to  its  vital  capacity.  The  result  here 
is  nearly  similar  to  that  just  described.  Powerful  mus- 
cular contractions  are  required  in  order  to  inflate  the 
chest  to  the  utmost,  and  of  course  the  chest-walls,  when 
released,  tend  to  return  with  great  force  to  their  state 
of  normal  equilibrium.  Consequently,  the  command 
over  the  current  of  air.  to  be  thrown  into  sonorous 
vibration  as  it  passes  the  glottis,  is  lessened,  and  the 
singer  quickly  becomes  tired  through  over-exertion. 

The  foregoing  remarks  apply  also  to  the  speaker, 
but  not  always  with  equal  force.  For  the  orator  or 
actor,  during  passionate  declamation,  may  exhaust  his 
breath,  whilst  the  evident  severity  of  his  labour  will 
only  serve  to  constrain  the  attention  and  rouse  the 
feelings  of  the  auditors,  so  as  to  impress  them  most 
Btrongly  with  the  importance  or  reality  of  the  theme. 
Yet  the  actor  will  perhaps  do  better  by  imitating  vividly 
the  appearance  of  natural  excitement,  than  if,  by  yielding 
entirely  to  the  force  of  his  representation  and  identifying 
himself  with  the  presented  character,  he  agitates  and 
tires  his  system  as  violently  as  if  torn  by  the  convulsions 
of  a  veritable  passion.     For  in  the  one  case,  indeed,  he 


76  PRINCIPLES   OF   VOCAL   CULTURE. 

seems  to  practise  that  art  which  can  conceal  art,  but  in 
the  other  to  abandon  himself  to  an  irrational  phrenzy. 
And  though  the  orator  may  sometimes  allow  himself  to 
be  carried  away  by  the  depth  and  sincerity  of  his  impulses 
or  the  loftiness  of  his  subject,  on  ordinary  occasions, 
such  as  lecturing,  for  example,  on  a  scientific  topic,  he 
must  manage  his  breath  with  as  much  delicacy  as  a 
singer.  Because  when  the  understanding  alone  of  the 
audience  is  addressed  they  will  be  more  attentive  to  a 
smooth  and  consecutive  flow  of  sentences,  whilst  their 
taste  may  be  offended  by  an  abrupt  and  gasping  delivery. 

Mode  of  Breathing. 

We  have  seen  that  there  are  three  sets  of  muscles 
which  are  capable  of  enlarging  the  thoracic  cavity  in 
different  directions  for  inspiration.  Now,  in  practising 
respiration  with  the  mind  turned  towards  the  mechanism 
of  the  act,  it  is  possible  to  use  one  or  two  of  these  sets 
almost  to  the  exclusion  of  the  remaining  respiratory 
muscles,  and  it  therefore  happens  that,  on  false  theoretical 
grounds,  or  by  accidental  proclivity,  a  vicious  habit  of 
breathing,  the  so-called  i  clavicular,'  may  be  adopted. 
Thus  a  departure  occurs  from  what  ought  to  be  the 
standard  rule,  i.e.,  to  breathe  always  naturally  and  to  fill 
the  chest  in  the  manner  which  comes  easiest.  If  this 
simple  rule  were  invariably  adhered  to,  there  would  be 
no  occasion  to  compare  the  various  kinds  of  breathing, 
and  to  decide  from  physiological  data  which  is  the  most 
proper  to  be  chosen.  This  question,  however,  must  be 
briefly  discussed  here,  in  order  to  show  why  clavicular 
breathing  should  be  generally  prohibited. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  VOCAL   CULTUi  77 

During  abdominal  respi/ration  the  expansion  of  the 
thorax  is  obtained  with  the  Least  expenditure  of  muscular 
energy.  The  only  muscle  concerned  is  the  diaphragm, 
which  descends  by  contraction,  and  thus  shifts  the  lower 
chest-wall  farther  down  into  the  abdomen.  The  oppo- 
sition to  this  act  is  but  slight,  as  the  only  parts  moved 
are  the  abdominal  viscera,  which  gravitation  assists  to 
carry  downwards.  Therefore  this  mode  of  breathing 
can  he  employed  for  a  long-  time  without  fatigue,  and 
by  man,  in  fact,  for  an  indefinite  period,  because  the 
diaphragm,  through  constant  action,  gains  an  amount 
of  endurance  practically  inexhaustible.  But  in  woman 
the  diaphragm  is  not  brought  so  continually  into  play, 
for  physiological  (obstetric)  reasons,  of  which,  however, 
the  potency,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  is  probably 
considerably  over-estimated.  We  may,  indeed,  conclude 
that  the  custom  of  confining  the  wraist  with  a  rigid  cor- 
set, which  compels  the  upper  part  of  the  abdomen  in 
its  whole  circumference  and  probably  the  last  two  ribs 
to  inaction,  has  generally  the  greatest  share  in  restrict- 
ing the  abdominal  breathing  of  females. 

Coital  or  lateral  respi/ration,  where  most  of  the 
ribs  have  to  be  raised  en  masse  proportionately  to  the 
increase  required  in  the  capacity  of  the  chest,  is  accom- 
panied by  no  small  degree  of  muscular  effort.  But.  as 
the  ribs  to  be  elevated  are  sufficiently  mobile  and  not 
hampered  by  superincumbent  parts,  this  kind  of  breath- 
ing can  be  accomplished  to  its  full  extent  without  any 
excess  of  strain  being  put  on  the  muscles  engaged. 
Consequently  it  forms  a  salutary  exercise  for  the  chest 
and  for  the  body  generally,  so  that  it  may  be  practised 


78  PRINCIPLES  OF  VOCAL   CULTURE. 

habitually,  though  not  exclusively,  with  advantage  to 
health.  The  respiratory  capacity  in  eluded  in  the  range 
of  combined  abdominal  and  costal  breathing  gives  air 
enough  for  all  the  requirements  of  the  artistic  exercise 
of  the  voice,  and  a  well-trained  speaker  or  singer  can 
rarely  be  obliged  to  exceed  such  limits. 

Clavicular  respiration,  as  already  stated,  is  per- 
formed by  a  number  of  muscles  which  are  not  primarily 
intended  to  move  the  chest- walls.  Their  position  and 
attachments  constitute  a  kind  of  respiratory  reserve  which 
nature  presses  into  service,  if  at  any  time  an  extra- 
ordinary effort  of  breathing  be  demanded,  or  when  dis- 
ease obstructs  the  motions  of  the  diaphragm  or  lower 
ribs.  And  as  these  muscles  act  chiefly  on  the  upper 
ribs,  which  not  only  possess  little  mobility  on  account 
of  their  size  and  stiff  joints,  but  are,  moreover,  restrained 
by  the  bones  and  soft  parts  of  the  shoulders  and  neck 
being  superimposed  on  them,  clavicular  breathing  can 
only  be  effected  by  a  kind  of  a  struggle.  For  the 
muscles  which  are  capable  of  lifting  the  shoulders  off 
the  upper  part  of  the  chest  must  first  contract  before 
room  can  be  obtained  for  the  elevation  of  the  superior 
ribs.  The  consequence  of  such  labour  is  rapidly  super- 
vening fatigue,  which  is  greatly  disproportionate  on  the 
side  of  excess  to  the  trivial  amount  of  respiratory  move- 
ments executed.  Hence  we  can  perceive  the  error  and 
injury  of  attempting  to  substitute  clavicular  breathing 
for  the  more  natural  and  facile  methods.  And  it  may 
also  be  affirmed  with  confidence  that  no  speaker  or 
singer  can  practise  it  to  any  extent  without  showing 
a  marked  deficiency  of  endurance,  which  must  lead  to  a 


PRIM  7PLES  ( '/ '  l  VCA1    <  l  7  Ti  RE.  79 

complete  defeat  of  hifl  Btrength  if  called  on  to  use  his 
voice  for  a  Lengthened  period,  Buch  as  when  engaging 
energetically  in  a  protracted  debate,  sustaining  ;i  lead- 
ing part  in  a  five-acl  play,  or  singing  through  an  opera. 
Clavicular  breathing  is  always  betrayed  by  the 
motion  it  necessarily  gives  to  the  shoulders,  which  are 
alternately  drawn  up  towards  the  ears  and  depressed. 
Should  the  habit  be  formed,  it  must  then  be  got  rid  of 
hy  paying  attention  to  keeping  the  shoulders  immovable 
during  respiration.  Any  difficulty  in  attaining  this  ob- 
ject may  be  surmounted  by  practising  breathing  with 
the  back  to  a  wall  having  projecting  ledges,  which  can 
fix  the  shoulders  and  prevent  their  moving  upwards,  or 
the  same  purpose  may  even  be  effected  by  crossing  the 
arms  behind  a  chair  and  holding  on  to  the  rail  behind.1 

Resp Iratory  Gymnastics. 

Every  action  of  the  body  accelerates  the  circulation, 
and  is  also,  therefore,  an  exercise  for  the  chest,  because 
the  more  rapid  flow  of  blood  through  the  lungs  causes 
them  to  demand  a  larger  supply  of  air.     This  demand 

1  Mandl  was  1  he  first  to  demonstrate  the  evil  of  clavicular  breath- 
Qazette  midieale  de  Paris,  1865,  pp.  244,  275,  204.  Previously 
many  teachers  of  note  actually  encouraged  this  mode  of  respiration, 
and  the  Paris  Conservatoire  promulgated  the  absurdity  thai  in  sing- 
ing the  breath  should  not  betaken  in  the  same  manner  as  in  speak- 
ing. •  Quand  on  respire  pour  parlcr  ou  pour  renouveler  simplement 
l'air  des  poumons,  le  premier  mouvement  est  eelui  de  Inspiration, 
alors  le  ventre  gonfle  el  bs  partie  posterieure  s'avance  un  pen.  .  .  . 
Au  contraire,  dans  Taction  de  respirer  pour  chanter,  en  aspiranl  il 
r.-nit  aplatir  le  ventre  el  le  faire  remonter  avec  promptitude  en 
gonflant  et  avancanl  la  poitrine.' — MHhode dechantdu  Conservatoire 

<!*    111 11  sit;  11  r.  p.  2. 


8o  PRINCIPLES  OF   VOCAL   CULTURE. 

may,  however,  be  met  simply  by  quickened  respiration, 
so  that  instead  of  seventeen  breaths  in  the  minute, 
thirty,  forty,  or  even  more  may  be  taken.  In  such  case 
there  is  no  influence  at  work  which  can  increase  the 
lung  capacity,  and  it  therefore  becomes  necessary  to  or- 
ganise a  system  of  gymnastics  with  the  direct  object  of 
developing  the  chest. 

The  first  point  to  which  attention  must  be  directed 
is  to  obtain  a  proper  position  of  holding  the  chest, 
whereby  the  ribs  may  be  allowed,  as  much  as  practi- 
cable, a  free  and  extensive  mobility.  For  when  the 
muscles  of  the  trunk  are  not  vigorous,  the  various  parts 
which  it  is  their  office  to  support  are  abandoned  to 
gravitation,  and  a  stooping  posture  is  maintained.  Thus 
the  shoulders,  with  the  arms  dependent  from  them,  droop 
forward  and  lie  passively  on  the  top  and  upper  parts  of 
the  sides  of  the  chest,  whilst  the  spine,  instead  of  pre- 
serving its  forward  curve  at  the  hinder  part  of  the 
abdomen  (small  of  the  back),  relaxes  to  verticity,  so  as 
to  lower  the  thorax,  laterally  and  in  front,  until  the  last 
ribs  rest  on  the  pelvis  (hips).  In  this  way,  as  the  pelvis 
rests  on  a  seat  or  through  the  legs  on  the  ground,  the 
muscles  are  relieved  in  great  part  from  their  task  of 
sustaining  the  body  erect.  But,  as  a  consequence,  the 
chest  is  built  up  in  such  a  manner  by  its  contiguous 
structures  that  its  osseous  case  is  rendered  nearly  im- 
mobile. 

Hence  it  appears  that  the  preliminary  action  in  res- 
piratory gymnastics  should  be  to  draw  the  shoulders 
bachwards,  and  to  advance  the  chest  forwards  and 
ujpivards,  by  giving  the  spine  a  strong  fomvard  curve 


PRINCIPLES  OF   VOCAL  CULTURE.  Si 

at   the  hinder  part  of  the  abdomen.     At  the  same  time 
the  anus  should  not  be  allowed  to  hang  against  the  sides 

of  the  chest. 

The  next  proceeding  should  be  to  practise  the  dif- 
ferent modes  of  breathing-.  The  activity  of  the  dia- 
phragm, as  evidenced  by  the  power  of  protruding  and 
retracting  the  abdomen  during  inspiration  and  expi- 
ration, whilst  the  ribs  are  retained  nearly  motionless, 
should  be  encouraged.  And  when  the  pupil  has  drawn 
a  full  abdominal  breath,  costal  inspiration  may  follow, 
and  occasionally,  at  the  last,  the  chest  may  be  expanded 
to  the  utmost  by  a  clavicular  effort.  But  the  natural 
sequence  of  the  different  kinds  of  respiration  should 
never  be  disturbed.  It  should  be  seen  that  the  abdo- 
men is  first  expanded,  then  the  lower  ribs,  and  only  at 
the  extremity  of  inspiration  should  any  motion  of  the 
Bhoulders  be  permitted,  so  that  the  lungs  may  be  in- 
flated to  the  maximum  extent.  As  a  rule  the  exercise 
should  be  restricted  to  the  abdominal  and  costal  breath- 
ing :  but  an  occasional  clavicular  inspiration  in  its  proper 
place  may  be  allowed,  in  order  that  the  pupil,  by  being 
accustomed  to  the  highest  limit  of  chest  expansion,  may 
Ik-  enabled  to  practise  the  intermediate  movements  with 
more  facility. 

Furthermore,  it  is  important  to  observe  that  this 
factitious  breath-taking  should  not,  especially  at  the 
commencement  of  a  course  of  training,  be  pushed  too 
tar  at  each  lesson.  After  every  two  or  three  efforts  it 
ought  to  he  alternated  with  movements  of  the  arm-, 
and  witli  pacing  up  and  down  for  a  few  steps  with  an 
i  m  ct  carriage.    By  thus  engaging  the  pupil  in  a  positive 

G 


82  PRINCIPLES  OF   VOCAL   CULTURE. 

muscular  exercise,  a  natural  incentive  is  obtained  to  in- 
creased respiration,  and  the  "breath  training  will  proceed 
more  effectually.  Otherwise,  to  draw  a  number  of  long 
breaths  for  reasons  that  are  purposeless  as  regards  the 
immediate  requirements  of  the  animal  economy,  cannot 
fail  to  upset  the  pulmonary  and  vascular  equilibrium 
and  to  produce  a  transient  exhaustion.1 

Management  of  the  Vibkating  Element 
(Vocal   Eeeds). 

Whilst  our  knowledge  of  the  physiology  of  the  larynx 
is  incomplete,  a  considerable  part  of  this  division  of  our 
subject  must  be  given  up  to  empirical  treatment,  and 
the  ear  must  be  guided  by  results  to  act  as  chief  arbiter 
of  the  utility  of  many  practices  relating  to  voice  train- 
ing. In  all  cases  the  ultimate  appeal  must  be  to  the 
ear,  but  a  basis  for  the  successive  steps  of  any  process  of 
voice  development  must  nevertheless  be  sought  for  in 
physiology.  Where  such  a  basis  is  wanting,  the  result 
often  fails  to  justify  the  means  adopted,  and  the  object 
which  from  the  first  was  aimed  at  is  not  attained. 

The  cultivation  of  the  laryngeal  powers  has  for  its 
purpose,  {I)  to  augment  the  force  of  the  sounds  that 
can  be  produced,  (2)  to  modify  their  timbre,  (3)  to  ex- 
tend their  compass,  and  (4)  to  increase  the  executive 
faculty  of  the  laryngeal  muscles. 

In  training  the  speaking  voice  power  and  timbre 

1  The  most  accurately  systematised  series  of  breathing  exercises, 
very  much  in  accordance  with  the  principles  enunciated  in  the  text, 
will  be  found  in  Monroe's  Vocal  and  Physical  Training,  Philadelphia, 
1869,  p.  19  et  seq. 


PRINCIPLES  OF   VOCAL    CULTURE.  83 

only,  SO  far  as  the  larynx  is  concerned,  claim  close  at- 
tention, because  the  sounds  employed  arc  concrete  and 
the  range  of  pitch  is  limited.  Thus  the  voice  glides  up 
and  down  without  marking  the  intervals  that  form  notes, 
whilst  its  excursions  seldom  comprise  the  compass  of  an 
octave. 

In  singing,  on  the  contrary,  discrete  sounds  are 
emitted,  so  that  changes  of  pitch  are  effected  by  leaps 
of  not  less  than  a  semitone,1  whilst  the  entire  range  of 
notes  of  which  the  voice  is  capable  is  often  traversed. 
Hence  every  activity  that  the  larynx  possesses  is  called 
into  play,  and  the  physical  training  of  the  organ  is, 
therefore,  of  a  much  more  complicated  description. 

Force  and  Timbre.2 

Force  and  timbre,  as  far  as  the  vocal  reeds  are  con- 
cerned, may  be  treated  of  together,  because  in  the  larynx 
they  are  practically  inseparable,  and  only  modifiable  by 
identical  and  simultaneous  efforts.  Force  of  voice  de- 
pends very  much  on  the  firmness  and  elasticity  of  the 
vocal  reeds  and  on  the  accuracy  with  which  their  op- 
posing edges  fit  together,  as  they  are  thus  most  apt  for 
the  isochronous  vibration  which  is  the  characteristic  of 

1  A  glide,  cnWcA  jiort  a  mi  at  a,  is,  however,  occasionally  admissible 
in  singing.    Quarter  tones  are  used  in  Oriental  music. 

-'  Loudness  of  Bound  maybe  considered  as  a  compound  quality, 
constituted  by  two  factors,  viz.,  intensity  and  volume.  In  voice, 
intensity  is  primarily  governed  i.\  breadth  of  the  vocal  bands,  and 
volume  by  capacity  of  the  resonance  chambers.  In  persons,  therefore, 
wiili  a  powerful  voice  the  laryngoscope  will  show  a  remarkable  width 
el'  the  app<  '"  rarfaci  3  of  the  vocal  reeds,  and  a  striking  amplitude 
iif  1  In-  pharynx,  mouth,  and  nasal  cavitii  -  will  also  be  ob  erved.  In 
h<  oppi    it'  case  th  appearances  will  be  the  reverse. 

G    2 


84  PRINCIPLES  OF   VOCAL   CULTURE. 

musical  tone.  They  must  be  homogeneous  in  density, 
and  the  muscular  contractions  which  hold  them  together 
and  regulate  their  tension  must  be  exactly  balanced,  so 
that  all  their  parts  may  respond  alike  to  the  current  of 
air  issuing  from  the  lungs.  Should  their  edges  be  un- 
even, their  substance  hard  in  one  spot  and  soft  in  another, 
or  their  tension  dissimilar  on  opposite  sides,  the  pres- 
sure of  the  air  has  a  different  effect  according  to  the 
part  at  which  it  strikes,  irregular  sets  of  vibrations  are 
generated,  and,  instead  of  a  tone  of  fulness  and  volume, 
a  harsh,  jarring  sound,  a  mere  noise  in  fact,  is  produced. 
As  far  as  physical  inequalities  of  the  vibrating  element 
are  concerned  these  phenomena  may  be  dismissed  with- 
out further  notice  here,  because  in  the  normal  state  the 
vocal  reeds  are  always  homogeneous  in  structure  and 
symmetrical  in  form.1  One  of  the  chief  causes  of  a 
rough,  unmusical  voice  is  disparity  of  action  between  the 
various  pairs  of  laryngeal  muscles.  The  tone  of  the 
voice  is,  therefore,  governed  almost  wholly  by  the  will 
of  the  speaker,  and  according  to  the  delicacy  of  his  ear 
will  be  tuneful  or  the  reverse.  That  the  ear  is  mainly 
instrumental  in  producing  refinement  of  vocal  tone  is 
proved  by  the  example  of  persons  who,  being  born  in- 
curably deaf,  have  been  taught  to  speak,  as  in  such  cases 
the  voice  remains  harsh  to  the  highest  degree.  On  this 
account  the  voice  becomes  an  index  of  mental  and  social 
status,  by  which  we  can  distinguish  the  uneducated  from 
persons  of  culture,  as  the  aural  perceptions  are  generally 

1  An  elevation  of  the  edge  of  one  of  the  vocal  bands,  causing  an 
unsteadiness  of  pitch  when  singing,  sometimes  exists  without  any 
evidence  of  past  or  present  disease. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  VOCAL    CULTURE.  85 

in  a  state  of  development  proportionate  to  that  of  the 
ether  senses. 

Persona  in  trying  to  Bpeak  with  a  sonorous  voice  too 
frequently  strain  the  muscles  of  the  chest  and  pharynx 
by  violent  efforts  to  expel  the  air  with  excessive  force, 
whilst  the  action  of  the  vocal  reeds  is  entirely  disre- 
garded. But  the  best  way  to  fill  a  large  hall  is  to  con- 
trive to  press  as  many  regular  and  ample  vibrations  as 
possible  into  each  syllable  uttered,1  on  which  account 
the  words  should  be  somewhat  more  prolonged  than  in 
ordinary  conversation.  In  singing,  though  the  same 
fault  may  occur,  it  is  guarded  against  to  a  great  extent, 
because  so  much  more  watchfulness  is  demanded  over 
the  musical  quality  of  the  notes. 

In  voice  practice,  therefore,  with  the  view  of  ob- 
taining a  fall  and  pure  tone,  attention  should  at  first 
be  mainly  fixed  on  the  laryngeal  vibrations.  For  this 
purpose  the  exercise  of  vocalisation,  i.e.,  the  exclusive 
emission  of  vowel-sounds,  as  adopted  by  the  old  Italian 
school  of  singing,  and  still  kept  up  by  many  modern 
teachers,  seems  most  plausible.  By  this  means  the  ob- 
servation can  be  concentrated  on  the  character  of  the 
laryngeal  tones  without  being  turned  aside  at  every 
moment  by  other  actions,  because  the  vocal  tube  and 
articulating  organs  either  remain  completely  at  rest  or 
execute  very  slight  movements  according  as  a  single 
vowel  or  a  succession  of  vowels  is  employed. 

An  action  of  the  vocal  reeds,  encouraged  by  many 

1  Allowing,  of  course,  Eoi  pitch.  Apart  from  the  choice  of  resonant 
vowels,  such  is  t lie  only  mode  I  can  conceive  physiologically  of  pro- 
ducing the  so-called  'orotund'  voice. 


86  PRINCIPLES  OF   VOCAL   CULTURE. 

teachers  of  singing,  and  termed  the  '  stroke  of  the  glot- 
tis '  (coup  de  glotte),  appears  well  adapted  to  steady 
the  working  of  their  mnscles  either  for  speech  or  song. 
Usually  at  the  beginning  of  phonation  the  vocal  reeds 
approach  during  expiration  and  commence  to  vibrate 
as  soon  as  they  come  near  enough  to  interrupt  without 
absolutely  breaking  the  continuity  of  the  issuing  stream 
of  air.1  But  in  practising  the  stroke  of  the  glottis  the 
vocal  reeds  are  first  tightly  approximated,  so  that  a  con- 
densation of  the  air  in  the  thoracic  cavity  precedes  the 
emission  of  tone,  which  consequently  commences  by  a 
slight  explosion,  arising  thus  in  a  manner  mechanically 
similar  to  the  explosive  consonants.  The  notes  begun 
in  this  way  strike  the  ear  with  an  initial  sharpness  of 
definition  and  firmness  of  tone  which  add  to  their  mu- 
sical effect.  This  stroke  of  the  glottis  should,  of  course, 
be  produced  without  any  more  marked  effort  than  occurs 
in  the  pronunciation  of  p  or  b  by  the  lips.  To  attain 
the  perfect  execution  of  it  the  pupil  should  first  learn 
to  explode  the  glottis  on  whispered  vowels,  for  which 
purpose  the  short  u  in  up,  as  recommended  by  Monroe, 
appears  specially  adapted. 

Extension  of  Compass. 

The  extension  of  vocal  compass  may  be  obtained  by 
specially  practising  the  voice  at  the  extremes  of  its 

1  In  speaking,  however,  Helrnholtz  thinks  the  vocal  bands  act  as 
striking  reeds.  In  holding  the  breath  the  ventricular  bands  are 
brought  together  tightly  and  the  ventricles  are  inflated,  as  first 
observed  by  Galen  (apud  Oribasium,  lib.  xsiv.  cap.  9),  and  recently 
confirmed  by  Wyllie.  The  same  action  is  probably  necessary  for  the 
proper  execution  of  the  coup  de  glotte  as  suggested  by  Lunn  (op.  cit.) 


PRINCIPLES  OF   VOCAL   CULTURE. 

natural  scale.  If  a  gain  in  the  lowest  notes  Is  desired, 
it  is  necessary  to  produce  an  extraordinary  relaxation  of 
the  vocal  reeds.  As,  however,  there  is  great  difficulty 
in  making  them  vibrate  harmoniously,  or  even  at  all, 
when  much  slackened,1  one  or  two  notes  will  usually 
represent  the  whole  sum  of  success  in  this  direct  ion,  but 
at  the  same  time  the  tone  of  deep  notes  already  existent 
may  be  considerably  developed. 

At  the  top  of  the  chest-register  we  have  seen  that  a 
kind  of  dead-lock  occurs  when  the  crico-thyroid  chink  is 
closed  and  the  opposing  margins  of  the  cartilages  come 
into  contact.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  an  almost  insu- 
perable obstacle  exists  in  the  way  of  pushing  the  voice 
upwards  in  this  register.  To  try  to  do  so  is  to  attempt 
the  compression  of  the  dense  cartilaginous  material  which, 
if  at  all  practicable,  must  call  forth  a  hazardous  amount 
of  muscular  strain.  As  far  as  the  vocal  reeds  are  con- 
cerned they  would  probably  bear  more  tension  than  is 
ever  put  on  them  ;  but  since  the  cartilages  interfere,  it 
will  doubtless  be  wisest  to  be  content  with  improving 
the  qualities  of  the  chest-notes  actually  possessed.  When 
this  has  been  done,  an  upward  gain  of  a  semitone  or 
two  will  generally  be  found  within  easy  reach. 

To  the  upward  extension  of  the  falsetto  register  there 
would  appear  to  be  less  opposition,  acoustic  or  physio- 
logical, than  in  either  of  the  instances  just  noticed.  For 
here,  indeed,  it  seems  that  the  vocal  reeds  should  still  be 
able  to  vibrate  strongly,  though  excessively  shortened  by 

1  Miiller  instances  the  deep  croak  of  frogs  to  show  what 
tones  can  be  drawn  from  short  membranous  reeds  when  greatly 
relaxed, 


SS  *        PRIXCIPLES  OF   VOCAL  CULTURE. 

constrictive  action,  whilst  the  curtailment  of  their  length 
is  not  quickly  checked  by  a  mechanical  impediment,  but 
is  ruled  more  remotely  by  power  of  muscular  contracti- 
lity. And  these  considerations  are  practically  exempli- 
fied by  the  extraordinary  falsetto  range  for  which  many 
celebrated  singers,  mostly  females,  have  been  noted, 
some  of  whom  could  attain  to  a  pitch  even  an  octave 
above  the  usual  limits  of  voice.1  The  main  obstacle, 
therefore,  to  the  upward  development  of  the  voice  in 
this  register  must  be  sought  for  in  the  natural  consti- 
tution of  the  vocal  organs  with  respect  to  vigour  and 
tonicity  in  various  individuals.  Should  the  pupil  be 
endowed  with  perfect  soundness  and  strength  of  all  the 
parts  engaged,  an  acquisition  of  two  or  three  tones,  or 
even  more,  may  be  the  reward  of  careful  and  assiduous 
practice.  Under  the  contrary  conditions,  however,  the 
vocal  organs  will  break  down  under  the  strain  if  the 
exercise  be  not  kept  strictly  within  the  boundary  pre- 
scribed by  the  natural  gifts. 

Vocal  Execution. 

A  rapid  execution   is  probably  more  frequently  a 

positive  acquirement  than  any  other  of  the  qualities 

displayed  in  singing,  and  flexibility  of  voice  may  be 

looked  on  as  the  special  prize  of  diligent  practice.     The 

1  E.g.,  Mara  could  sing  ef"  ^—t—  I   C'atalani  (/'"  -»== ;    and 
A^uiari  c""  ■  0    ~~  ■•   The  last  fact  rests  on  the  testimony  of  Mozart. 


I 


See  Fetis,  Biographic  unicerselle  des  mvsicims,  Paris,  1860-65,  sub 
nominibus, 


rxciPi.r.  -       i  ri'RR. 

laryngeal  muscles  deserve  to  lised  beyond  all 

others  for  power  of  making  minute   mov  with 

extraordinary  exactitude — a  property  which  is  doabi 
derived  from  their  being  able  to  rely  on  so  delical 
guide  as  the  ear.  They  can  determine  the  amount  of 
their  contractions  with  the  utmost  precision,  and  can 
pass  with  preconception  between  degrees  farthest  apart 
either  instantly,  through  a  succession  of  equal  intervals, 
or  by  the  most  complicated  irregularity  of  distances.  A 
wide  field  is  here  open  for  the  ingenuity  of  the  com- 
.  or  teacher  of  singing  to  systematise  solfeggi  or 
vocal  exercises,  which  shall  contain  every  possible  tran- 
sition between  the  various  notes  in  ascending  or  descend- 
ing the  scale,  commencing  with  the  simplest  movements. 
and  advancing  insensibly  to  the  greatest  complexity.  An 
important  point  to  be  kept  in  view  during  this  kind  of 
practice  is  to  facilitate  the  passage  from  one  register  to 
another  by  endeavouring  to  amalgamate  the  notes  in  the 
vicinity  vi  the  break,  especially  those  that  can  be  sung 
in  either  voice  at  will.  It  should,  however,  be  carefully 
ascertained  at  what  points  breaks  actually  do  occur  in 
each  voice  that  comes  under  notice.  It  cannot  but  be 
injurious  to  force  all  voices  indiscriminately  to  make  a 
change  of  register  at  one  and  the  same  position  in  the 
musical  scale. 

Management  of  the  Resonance  Apparai 
(Vocal  Tin     . 

The  questions  here  involved  relate  mainly  to  pro- 
nunciation of  vowel-.     There  are,  however,  some  super- 


go  PRINCIPLES  OF   VOCAL   CULTURE. 

added  qualities,  individual  or  national,  of  vocal  timbre 
which  may  be  treated  of  separately.  Thus  a  guttural 
or  nasal  character  may  be  given  to  every  vowel-sound, 
though  otherwise  well  defined,  by  an  improper  predo- 
minance of  pharyngeal  or  nasal  resonance. 

In  the  first  case  the  fault  lies  in  the  pharynx  and 
mouth  not  communicating  by  a  sufficiently  capacious 
opening.  The  causes  of  such  a  condition  depend  either 
on  anatomical  conformation  or  on  peculiar  and  habitual 
muscular  action.  The  tonsils  may  be  enlarged  so  as  to 
block  up  the  upper  part  of  the  pharynx,  or  the  soft- 
palate  and  uvula  may  be  elongated,  so  as  almost  to  reach 
the  posterior  surface  of  the  tongue.  Or  the  individual 
may  be  in  the  habit  during  speaking  of  maintaining  the 
tongue  in  a  position  arched  upwards  and  backwards,  so 
that  it  approaches  the  soft-palate  too  closely,  whilst  there 
may  be  at  the  same  time  an  excessive  contraction  of  the 
muscles  of  the  fauces.  Under  these  circumstances  the 
laryngeal  tones  will  be  almost  deprived  of  oral  resonance, 
and,  not  having  a  free  passage  for  exit,  will  have  a  gut- 
tural and  muffled  sound.  In  such  instances  the  remedy 
must  be  adapted  to  remove  the  cause,  and  if  the  tonsils 
or  uvula  are  abnormally  large,  a  part  of  them  may  be 
removed  by  a  simple  and  momentary  surgical  operation. 
And  the  effect  of  excision  of  the  tonsils  may  not  only  be 
to  render  the  voice  clear  and  sonorous,  but  may  also 
allow  the  compass  to  be  extended  one  or  two  notes 
higher.1     For  the  action  of  the  extrinsic  muscles  of  the 

1  It  is  stated  that  '  many  of  our  greatest  singers,  from  Madame 
Patti  downwards,  have  undergone  the  operation '  with  the  best 
results. — Browne,  Medical  Mints  on  the  Singing  Voice,  1877,  p.  30. 


PRINCIPLES  OF   VOCAL   CULTURE.  91 

larynx,  which  is  so  essential  in  the  production  of  high 
notes,  is  greatly  impeded  when  the  pharynx  is  blocked 
up  by  an  enormous  pair  of  tonsils.  But  when  the  vicious 
tone  of  the  voice  is  due  to  injudicious  management  of 
the  muscles  of  the  tongue  and  pharynx,  a  course  of  gym- 
nastic training  of  the  parts  will  soon  induce  them  to  the 
habitual  assumption  of  the  proper  positions. 

With  respect  to  excess  of  nasal  timbre,  its  causes  are 
also  twofold,  and  it  may  arise  from  a  deficiency  of  the 
soft-palate,  which  renders  the  occlusion  of  the  posterior 
nares  impossible,  or  it  may  be  simply  the  result  of  an 
imperfect  action  of  the  same  organ.  In  the  former 
instance  the  fault  will  often  be  irremediable  as  far  as 
regards  purity  of  tone  ;  but  when  it  is  merely  a  question 
of  muscular  control,  the  pupil  should  be  made  to  observe 
the  action  of  the  soft-palate,  and  to  practise  its  elevation 
before  a  mirror.  If,  at  the  same  time,  the  attention  of 
the  ear  is  thoroughly  awakened,  the  voice  may  soon  be 
from  the  objectionable  timbre. 

Another  point  which  deserves  notice  here  relates  to  a 
practice  by  no  means  uncommon,  viz.,  the  keeping  the 
teeth  shut  during  speaking  or  singing.  A  considerable 
loss  of  resonance  is  the  consequence,  because  the  cavity 
of  the  mouth  is  never  placed  in  the  best  position  for 
reinforcing  the  laryngeal  tones,  and  also  because  the 
sound-waves  cannot  issue  with  sufficient  freedom  to  the 
external  air.  It  is  only  necessary  to  recognise  the  habit, 
where  existent,  in  order  that  the  inclination  to  it  may 
be  overcome  by  the  will. 


92  PRINCIPLES  OF  VOCAL   CULTURE. 

Management  of  the  Articulating  Organs. 
Voivel  Timbre, 

We  have  seen  that  the  difference  between  the  various 
vowel-sounds  is  not  one  of  kind,  but  merely  of  degree, 
and  that  they  depend  on  the  pitch  of  the  note  proper 
to  the  resonance  cavity  formed  by  the  pharynx  and 
mouth.  As  this  cavity  can  be  reduced  by  infinite  gra- 
dations from  its  greatest  to  its  least  capacity,  whilst  the 
procession  of  vowels  used  in  any  one  language  advances 
by  steps  of  about  an  octave,  it  follows  that  the  lowest 
can  be  made  to  pass  insensibly  into  the  highest  through 
all  the  other  members  of  the  series  successively.  It  is, 
therefore,  possible  to  produce  as  many  vowels  as  will 
correspond  to  each  note,  or  rather  degree  of  pitch,  ob- 
tainable from  the  vowel-cavity.  According  as  our  ear 
recognises  them  to  approach  nearest  to  one  or  another 
of  the  vowels  familiar  to  us,  we  class  them  as  varieties 
of  those  they  most  resemble.  Hence  arises  mainly  the 
endless  diversity  of  pronunciation  observed  in  indivi- 
duals, provincials,  and  nationalities. 

With  these  facts  in  view  it  is  easy  to  understand 
how  many  shades  of  timbre  the  voice  can  be  made  to 
yield  at  will.  Of  these  some  add  sonorousness,  some 
brightness,  others  softness ;  whilst  others,  again,  are 
disagreeable.  Thus,  in  the  emission  of  a  (as  in  father) 
the  fullest  volume  of  vocal  tone  can  be  generated,  be- 
cause the  dimensions  of  the  buccal  cavity  and  the  size 
of  the  oral  aperture  are  most  favourable  to  the  formation 
of  strong  vibrations.     And  for  the  reverse  reasons  the 


PRINCIPLES  OF  VOCAL   CULTURE.  93 

vowel  6  ("  in/ee£)  deprives  the  lower  tones  of  the  voice 
of  power,  though,  on  account  of  its  sharpness,  it  rem  I'  1 
high  notes  penetrating.  The  choice,  however,  of  vowels, 
or  modifications  of  them,  is  a  complex  matter  which 
must  he  decided  by  the  taste  of  the  pupil  or  his  teacher.1 
J I  is  sullicient  to  have  indicated  here  the  principles  on 
which  change  of  vocal  timbre  is  made.  In  accordance 
with  these  principles,  an  exercise  may  be  devised  for 
practising  (he  enunciation  of  all  the  grades  of  vowel 
timbre.  A  good  understanding  of  the  state  of  the  vocal 
tube  for  the  different  vowels,  and  the  custom  of  direct- 
ing the  attention  to  it,  will  greatly  facilitate  the  accu- 
rate imitation  of  the  peculiar  vowels  found  in  foreign 
languages. 

Consonants. 

A  rapid  and  well-defined  pronunciation  of  the  various 
c<  msonants,  either  in  speaking  or  singing,  requires  a  con- 
siderable  amount  of  lingual  and  labial  dexterity.  The 
tongue  or  lips  maybe  naturally  clumsy  and  awkward  in 
their  movements  or  the  reverse.  In  order  to  attain  to 
a  good  execution  in  articulating  consonants,  it  is  usually 
only  necessary  to  practise  the  utterance  of  numbers  of 
syllables  containing  every  pronounceable  combination 
and  succession  of  them  -  under  the  empirical  guidance 
of  the  ear.  But,  of  course,  a  correct  idea  of  the  posi- 
tions of  the  parts  concerned  in  the  formation  of  each 
Letter  will  render  the  task  more  easy.     In  a  certain 

1  Sec  Ellis,  Pronunciation  for  Stagers,  1877. 

.'•  Sfandui 


94  PRINCIPLES  OF  VOCAL   CULTURE. 

class  of  persons,  however,  the  action  of  the  vocal  organs 
is  specially  defective,  so  that  speech,  even  for  ordinary 
purposes,  becomes  a  matter  of  great,  and  occasionally  of 
almost  insuperable,  difficulty.  This  leads  us  to  the 
consideration  of  defects  of  speech. 

Stammering  and  Stuttering,  or  Psellism. 

Such  affections  have  been  well  known  from  the  ear- 
liest times,  and  are  often  alluded  to  by  Hippocrates ;  * 
but  nevertheless  it  is  only  within  the  present  century 
that  systematic  endeavours  have  been  made  to  discover 
their  causes,  and  to  invent  suitable  modes  of  treatment. 
Already  considerable  success  has  been  attained  with 
respect  to  the  latter  object,  although  no  wholly  satisfac- 
tory explanation  of  their  intrinsic  nature  has  yet  been 
furnished  to  us.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  a  multi- 
plicity of  causes  are  at  work,  and  that  the  disability  of 
any  of  the  organs  of  voice,  from  the  chest  to  the  lips,  is 
sufficient  to  disturb  the  consentaneous  action  of  the  en- 
tire series,  and  produce  the  phenomena  of  psellism. 

Stammering  may  be  defined  to  be  indistinctness  of 
pronunciation,  arising  from  the  letters  of  the  alphabet 
not  being  properly  formed  by  the  organs  of  articulation. 
It  most  frequently  arises  from  a  muscular  defect,  giving 
rise  to  a  clumsiness  in  getting  the  tongue  round  one  or 
more  letters,  which  are,  therefore,  so  imperfectly  enun- 
ciated as  to  be  unrecognisable  ;  or  one  letter  may  even 
be  habitually  substituted  for  another ;  or  the  difficulty 
may  only  be  in  combining  the  sounds  of  certain  letters. 

1  PrcecejJtiones,  c.  6;  ApHorismi,  s.  vi.  32;  etc. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  VOCAL   CULTURE.  95 

In  some  c;im>  hammering  may  lie  the  result  of  mere 
carelessness  or  boo  great  eagerness  in  speaking,  so  that 
the  won  Is  are  clipped  and  successive  syllables  are  allowed 
to  run  into  one  another  in  a  confused  manner.  In  a  few 
instances,  however,  a  decided  malformation  of  the  speech 
organs  exists,  such  as  cleft-palate,  abnormal  enlargement 
of  the  tonsils,  or  shortness  of  the  frccnum  Ungual.  A 
classification  of  stammering  has  been  attempted  accord- 
ing to  the  character  of  the  defect  noticed  in  different 

s.  Thus  faulty  pronunciation  of  g  is  termed  ga/m- 
iiiaclam,  of  I,  lambdacism,  of  r,  rhotadsm,  of  j,  lota- 
cism,  lisping,  sigmatism,  etc. 

The  treatment  of  stammering  is  simple  and  obvious. 
The  pupil  should  be  made  to  repeat  the  alphabet  slowly, 
and  a  note  taken  of  every  letter  that  is  ill-formed,  and 
he  should  also  be  made  to  read  aloud.  From  such  ex- 
perience, a  series  of  suitable  exercises  in  pronunciation 
must  be  given  him  to  practise.  The  instructor  should 
be  a  good  practical  orthoepist,  and  should  see  that  the 
tongue,  lips,  etc.,  are  put  in  the  proper  position  for  each 
letter.  He  should  show  the  pupil,  in  his  own  person, 
the  action  of  the  articulating  organs,  and  desire  him  to 
imitate  them.  If  the  stammering  arises  from  hasty  and 
impetuous  speech,  a  slow  and  distinct  delivery  must  be 
inculcated.  Of  course,  if  there  is  a  malformation,  sur- 
gical assistance  must  be  sought. 

Stuttering  '  is  a  much  more  important  disorder  and 
more  complicated  in  it     physiological  relations.     Here 

1  The  distinction  between  stammering  and  stuttering  is  not 
always  accurately  drawn,  and  the  t<  often  employed  inter- 

changeably both  in  .-1 


q6  PRINCIPLES  OF   VOCAL   CULTURE. 

we  have  rapid  repetitions  of  a  letter,  usually  one  of  the 
explosive  consonants,  convulsive  stoppages  of  articula- 
tion, and  sometimes  even  contortions  of  the  face  and 
limbs  before  the  utterance  of  each  sentence,  or  possibly 
of  every  word.  Notwithstanding  the  attention  that 
many  eminent  observers  have  given  to  these  pheno- 
mena, their  nature  is  still  in  great  part  obscured,  and 
conflicting  theories  are  held  by  some  of  the  most  exact 
investigators. 

The  subject  of  psellism  has  been  dealt  with  by  a 
crowd  of  authors,  each  of  whom  has  classified  the  sub- 
ject and  modified  the  treatment  in  accordance  with  his 
own  peculiar  mental  bias.  Of  these  Hunt J  may  be 
cited  as  the  writer  of  the  most  elaborate  and  systematic 
treatise.  But  the  most  able  and  important  of  the  recent 
literary  contributions  in  this  field  is  due  to  Gruillaume,2 
who,  from  having  suffered  himself,  has  had  special  prac- 
tical advantages  in  studying  the  affection.  The  measures 
in  which  he  places  his  confidence  are,  (1)  keeping  the 
tongue  steadily  raised  to  the  palate,  (2)  taking  an  ample 
inspiration  at  the  beginning  of  each  sentence,  and  (3) 
careful  attention  to  ensure  correct  movements  of  the 
lips.  He  further  counsels  the  use,  when  necessary,  of  a 
small  wedge  to  keep  the  teeth  apart,  and  dwells  with 
considerable  weight  on  the  practice  of  whispering  ex- 
ercises. 

From  observation  of  various  cases  and  examination 
of  the  chief  theories  that  have  been  propounded  relative 

1  A  Treatise  on  Stammering  and  Stuttering.     London,  1870. 
-  Dietionnaire  Ency  clop  edible   des  Sciences  Medicates.     Paris, 
1868,  art.  Begazemeivt. 


PRINCIPLES  nr  VOCAL   CULTURE.  97 

to  stuttering  and  the  modes  of  treatment  thai  have  I 
adopted,  it  is  manifest  that  the  affection  is  one  of  g 
complexity,  and  to  which,  according  to  circumstances, 
diverse   remedies  must    1"-   applied  with    considerable 

judgment.  Thus,  to  summarise  the  subject  as  far  as 
practicable,  we  see  that  five  principal  groups  of  muscles 

may  be  implicated,  separately  or  in  various  combina- 
tions, viz.,  the  muscles  (1)  of  the  chest,  (2)  of  the  la- 
rynx, (3)  of  the  tongue,  (4)  of  the  jaw,  and  (5)  of  the 
lips.  And  the  nature  of  the  disorder  may  be  either 
sjjasmodic,  so  that  the  muscles  take  up  a  fixed  position 
which  can  only  be  overcome  by  a  strong  and  often  pro- 
longed effort  of  the  will ;  or  choreic,  so  that  when  called 
on  to  act  they  perform  a  series  of  eccentric  and  involun- 
tary movements  instead  of  being  instantly  subservient 
to  the  wish  of  the  speaker.  And  beyond  all  this,  there 
is  still  a  mental  influence,  a  nervousness  or  timiditv, 
which  must  be  banished  before  the  vocal  organs  can  be 
ruled  by  the  volition  into  a  perfectly  concerted  action. 
Hence  the  first  object  in  treating  a  case  must  be  to  ob- 
tain the  co-operation  of  the  pupil,  and  his  anxiety  must 
be  aroused  to  conquer  the  defect.  This  done,  a  great 
step  in  advance  will  have  been  made,  as  is  evidenced  by 
the  fact  that  a  marked  amelioration  of  stuttering  usually 
occurs  on  arrival  at  adult  age,  whilst  occasionally  the 
affection  quite  disappears  about  that  time  of  life.  This 
circumstance  no  doubt  arises  from  the  awakening  of  the 
reasoning  faculties  and  the  confirmation  of  the  powers  of 
the  mind,  which  then  assumes  a  more  discretionarv  con- 
trol over  the  impulses  of  the  body.  As  soon  as  the  pupil 
has  been  engaged  to  assist  the  teacher  with  his  own  endea- 

H 


93  PRINCIPLES  OF  VOCAL   CULTURE. 

vours,  an  attempt  to  discover  the  main  spring  of  the 
disorder  may  be  made,  and  such  of  the  exercises  above 
mentioned  as  seem  most  suitable  to  the  case  put  in  prac- 
tice. The  system  of  G-uillaume  promises  the  best  results ; 
but  every  voice-trainer  will  have  to  draw  largely  on  his 
own  judgment,  and,  in  the  present  state  of  our  know- 
ledge, empiricism  will  sometimes  guide  most  directly 
to  the  desired  end. 

The  originating  causes  of  stuttering  are  not  well 
ascertained,  and  in  many  cases  where  it  appears  to  date 
from  infancy  it  can  only  be  attributed  to  some  acci- 
dental organic  defect.  But  sex  predisposes  very  markedly 
to  the  affection,  and  a  striking  majority  of  the  examples 
met  with  occur  in  males.  Thus,  of  all  the  instances  ob- 
served by  Colombat  and  Hunt,  only  about  10  or  12  per 
cent,  were  females.  The  latter  author  also  endeavoured 
to  discover  the  origin  of  200  cases  that  he  treated,  and 
found  that  7^  per  cent,  dated  from  convalescence  after 
illness,  such  as  fever,  measles,  whooping-cough,  etc. ; 
5  per  cent,  were  the  result  of  fright  or  ill-usage  at 
school ;  4  per  cent,  were  caused  by  voluntary,  and  9  per 
cent,  by  involuntary,  imitation  ;  10  per  cent,  were  stated 
to  be  inherited  from  the  father,  and  5  per  cent,  from  the 
mother  ;  whilst  the  remainder,  49^  per  cent.,  could  not 
be  accounted  for. 

The  numerical  relation  of  stutterers  to  the  whole 
population  is  reckoned  by  Colombat  to  average  about 
1  to  5,397.  Hunt,  however,  and  some  other  observers 
make  the  proportion  much  higher,  viz.,  3  per  1,000. 


99 


CHAPTER   V. 

THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE   VOICE. 

SPECIAL    HYGIENE    OF   THE   VOCAL    ORGANS — GENERAL 
HTGIENE    IN    ITS    RELATION    TO    THE    VOICE. 

Scope  of  fJtP  subject. — The  relations  of  the  voice  to 
the  general  health  of  the  body  are  of  the  most  intimate 
and  complete  description.  The  hygiene  of  the  voice  in 
its  fullest  sense  is,  therefore,  the  hygiene  of  the  whole 
animal  economy ;  and  the  spirit  of  the  well-known  pro- 
verb, which  sets  forth  how  closely  is  interwoven  the  in- 
tegrity of  mind  and  of  body,  might  with  equal  propriety 
be  applied  to  the  voice  in  the  form  of '  vox  sana  in 
corpore  sano."1  At  the  same  time,  however,  the  voice, 
like  the  mind,  has  a  sphere  of  its  own,  within  w7hich  it 
may  be  affected,  for  good  or  ill,  without  immediate  re- 
ference to  the  state  of  the  constitution.  Hence  its 
sanity  may  be  treated  of  under  the  twofold  aspects  of 
;i  general  and  a  special  hygiene.  The  latter,  a-  (he 
more  immediate,  though  less  familiar  and  less  inves- 
tigated, may  be  first  discussed. 

Special  Hygiene  of  the  Vocal  Organs. 

In  this  section  we  may  consider  how  far  the  Btate 
of  the  vocal  organs  with  respect  t<»  soundness  and  vigour 

ii  2 


ioo  THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  VOICE. 

may  be  influenced  by  their  own  actions,  i.e.,  by  the  ex- 
ercise, moderated  or  exaggerated,  of  the  voice ;  whilst 
at  the  same  time  some  appropriate  rules  may  be  laid 
down  of  preservative  and  remedial  hygiene.  In  the 
professional  use  of  the  voice  the  parts  concerned  are 
urged  to  perform  their  functions  to  a  much  higher 
degree  than  is  ever  exacted  by  the  ordinary  exigencies 
of  social  life,  and  they  are,  therefore,  subjected  to  a 
marked  intensifying  of  the  conditions,  both  intrinsic 
and  extrinsic,  under  which  they  usually  act,  whence 
a  signal  alteration  may  be  effected  in  their  physical 
structures. 

Voice  is  generated  mainly  as  the  result  of  two  con- 
secutive and  specially  combined  movements,  the  one 
primary  and  vital,  namely,  activity  of  muscle,  the 
other  secondary  and  material,  viz.,  motion  of  air.  To 
these  two  relations  may  be  traced  all  the  physiological 
effects  of  vocal  exercise. 


Direct  Results  of  Muscular  Activity. 

The  systematised  daily  use  of  the  various  groups  of 
muscles  called  into  action  during  phonation  impels  them 
to  gain  in  size  and  strength  as  long  as  the  efforts  made 
do  not  exceed  from  time  to  time  their  proper  powers. 
Hence  follows  increasing  ease  in  performing  the  respi- 
ratory functions  and  extension  of  the  initial  faculties  of 
mobility  of  the  larynx  and  articulating  apparatus.  The 
nutrition  of  the  local  muscles  and  all  the  contiguous 
structures  is  carried  on  with  more  than  ordinary  energy ; 
they  glow  with  health  and  their  growth  is  accelerated. 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  VOICE.  101 

Precisely  the  opposite  phenomena  are  produced  by 
over-exertion,  [n this  case  the  muscles  become  exhausted 
and  diminished  in  bulk  and  vigour  because  the  \\ 
of  their  tissues  entailed  by  the  excessive  action  is  pressed 
beyond  the  reparative  powers  of  the  vital  forces,  and 
fresh  material  cannot  be  laid  down  in  an  equal  quan- 
tity to  that  which  passes  away  as  effete.  At  the  point 
when  labour  becomes  inordinate  fatigue  is  felt,  and 
resl  becomes  a  necessity,  whilst  in  the  interval  of  ces- 
sation from  work  the  parts  that  had  suffered  from 
too  much  wear  and  tear  are  restored  to  their  normal 
state. 

Over-exertion  may  be  of  two  kinds.  Thus  it  may 
consist  in  sudden  and  violent  effort,  or  in  a  prolongation 
of  ordinary  movements  until  endurance  is  completely 
spent.  In  the  former  case  the  harm  partakes  more  of 
the  nature  of  an  injury  ;  some  of  the  tender  fibrils  of 
the  muscle,  and  of  the  minute  blood-vessels  or  capillaries 
which  traverse  it,  may  be  torn  across.  Hence  there  may 
be  soreness,  pain,  and  swelling,  or  even  inflammation, 
the  results  in  fact  commonly  recognised  as  occurring 
from  a  strain  or  sprain.  Eecovery  from  such  a  condi- 
tion is  often  protracted.  In  violent  vocal  efforts  the 
muscles  engaged  may  suffer  in  this  way,  whence  the 
chest  may  for  some  time  after  feel  sore  to  the  touch 
and  during  respiration.  But  the  muscles  most  likely 
to  be  strained  are  those  of  the  larynx,  because  they  are 
called  on  to  contract  very  forcibly  in  order  that  the 
vocal  bands  may  resist  by  their  steady  approximation 
the  impetuous  rush  of  air  from  the  lungs.  Hence  re- 
sults what  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  8  a  -train  of  the 


io2  THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  VOICE. 

vocal  cords.' J  Such  an  accident  is  soon  betrayed  by 
hoarseness,  which,  however,  generally  disappears  spon- 
taneously after  a  few  days  of  rest.  But  weakness  of 
voice  may  often  be  a  troublesome  symptom  for  a  con- 
siderable time. 

The  consequences  of  persistent  speaking"  or  singing, 
in  spite  of  great  fatigue  being  felt,  are  somewhat  similar 
to  those  just  described,  but  of  a  less  pronounced  cha- 
racter. On  single  occasions,  therefore,  recovery  is  usually 
rapid  and  complete  after  a  short  interval  of  repose.  The 
evils,  however,  to  be  here  considered  are  those  attendant 
on  repeated  and  habitual  exertion  of  the  vocal  organs 
beyond  the  enduring  power  of  the  individual.  In  such 
instances  the  fundamental  cause  at  work  is  generally 
some  vice  of  voice-production — that  is  to  say,  a  well- 
trained  voice  can  seldom  suffer  from  over-fatigue,  be- 
cause the  vocalist  has  learned  by  precept  and  experience 
how  to  make  the  best  of  his  natural  gifts.  Thus,  even 
a  feeble  voice  can  be  saved,  by  judicious  management, 
from  the  consequences  of  oft-repeated  fatigue.  Such  a 
result  depends  mainly  on  well-regulated  respiration  and 
attention  to  the  formation  of  the  laryngeal  tones.2  But 
when  clavicular  or  other  improper  modes  of  breathing 

1  Positive  strains  of  the  voice  are  now  rarely  met  with,  but  were 
common  enough  in  classical  times,  when  the  pJwnasci  had  to  force 
their  voice  to  the  utmost  in  order  to  fill  the  enormous  theatres. 
Thus  Galen :  '  Phonasci,  qui  magno  vocis  exercitio  utuntur,  quum 
contendendo  oblseserint  vocem.  .  .  .  balneis  multis  utuntur,  et  cibos 
lenes,  ac  laxantes  edunt.' — Be  Compositione  Pharmacorum  secundum 
Locos,  1.  vii.  c.  1.  According  to  Q.  Serenus  Sammonicus,  Hortensius 
strained  and  permanently  lost  his  voice  from  declaiming  intempe- 
rately  in  the  Koman  forum. — Prcecepta  do  Medicina,  c.  15. 

2  See  last  Chapter. 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  VOICE.  103 

are  employed,  the  muscles  of  the  chest-walls  sood  become 
tired  out.  And  the  evil  tends  to  augment  on  every  sub- 
sequent occasion,  because  (he  use  of  the  voice,  instead 
of  being  ;i  tonic  exercise  for  the  chest,  becomes  a  debi- 
litating one.  Hence  the  voice  loses  in  fulness  and 
steadiness,  and  becomes  weak  and  trembling.  So  far, 
then,  a  radical  exhaustion  of  the  respiratory  muscles 
sets  in,  and  this  is  one  phase  in  the  convergence  of  con- 
tingencies under  which  a  voice  may  be  worn  out. 

But  the  most  striking  and  frequent  troubles  are 
those  which  follow  faulty  usage  of  the  laryngeal  and 
pharyngeal  muscles.  When  the  individual,  instead  of 
throwing  his  vocal  bands  into  even  and  ample  vibration 
by  equable  and  carefully-moderated  expiration,  conti- 
nually resorts  to  blowing  a  powerful  blast  of  air  through 
the  glottis,  both  the  intrinsic  and  extrinsic  muscles  of 
the  larynx  must  be  maintained  in  an  almost  constant 
state  of  vigorous  contraction.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, as  in  all  overtaxed  muscles,  the  overplus  of 
effete  products  generated  by  che  exertion  cannot  be  re- 
moved readily  by  the  proper  channels,  but  accumu- 
lates. As  a  consequence,  the  substance  of  the  muscles 
becomes  turgid,  the  capillary  vessels  traversing  it  are 
partially  obstructed,  and  much  of  the  blood  sent  to  the 
part,  instead  of  flowing  through  measuredly,  collects 
there  and  increases  the  intumescence.  Such  is  the 
condition  generally  described  as  congestion.  When  oc- 
curring in  the  laryngeal  or  pharyngeal  muscles,  hoarse- 
ness invariably  results,  because  the  delicate  movements 
necessary  to  regulate  the  tension  and  approximation  of 
the  vocal  bands  are  clogged  and  cannot  be  executed  with 


io4  THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  VOICE. 

precision.  Unequal  vibrations  are  therefore  produced. 
At  the  same  time,  there  may  be  little  or  no  appearances 
of  disease,  because  the  mucous  membrane  which  forms 
the  surface  and  invests  the  affected  muscles  may  remain 
intact.  Such,  when  induced  by  fatigue  of  the  voice, 
appears  to  be  the  incipient  stage  of  the  malady,  for- 
merly called  Dysphonia  clericorum,  or  clergyman's  sore 
throat,  but  now,  through  a  better  knowledge  of  its  etio- 
logy and  nature,  more  properly  termed  '  glandular  sore 
throat.' 

After  repeated  congestions,  however,  the  mucous 
membrane  becomes  deeply  implicated,  and  more  or  less 
chronicity  then  characterises  the  disease.  In  this  stage 
its  chief  features  consist  in  the  swelling  of  numerous 
minute  glands,1  which  dot  the  surface  of  the  larynx  and 
pharynx.  Their  office  is  to  secrete  and  discharge  the 
lubricating  fluid  which  is  so  essential  to  keep  the  inside 
of  the  throat  moist  and  supple.  As  soon  as  they  parti- 
cipate in  the  congestion,  their  orifices  become  choked 
and  the  fluid  collects  in  them.  They  then  appear  like 
granules  or  small  grains  of  shot,  studding  the  surface  of 
the  mucous  membrane.  Still  later  on  the  secretion  dis- 
tends them  to  such  an  extent  that  they  re-open  or  burst, 
so  as  to  let  it  exude.  It  has  then  become  so  altered 
from  its  natural  state,  being  thickened  and  of  a  chalky 
whiteness,  that  it  remains  at  the  opening  whence  it 
issues  as  a  small  white  patch,  or  even  projects  or  hangs 
down  from  it  like  the  end  of  a  white  thread. 

The  symptoms  of  sensation  which  accompany  these 

1  Called  'racemose,'  from  their  resemblance  to   a  miniature 
luster  of  grapes. 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  VOICE. 

phenomena  are  a  feeling  of  irritation  or  pricking,  heat, 
and  Blight  soreness  in  the  throat.  A  Bhori  cough  is 
some!  imes  present . 

The  effects  on  the  voice  are  marked,  and  generally 
destructive  as  regards  its  artistic  use.  Hoarseness,  more 
or  less  pronounced,  is  present,  and  singers  especially  com- 
plain of  a  loss  of  their  high  notes.  This  latter  conse- 
quence arises  from  the  thickening  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane, which  in  the  larynx  prevents  the  vocal  bands 
from  being  properly  approximated  and  tensed,  and  in 
the  pharynx  interferes  with  the  action  of  the  extrinsic 
muscles,  which  draw  up  the  larynx  and  fix  and  compress 
the  wings  of  the  thyroid  cartilage. 

A  less  frequent  consequence  of  abuse  of  the  vocal 
powers  is  to  provoke  the  growth  of  polypi,  or  warts,  on 
or  near  the  vocal  reeds.  Such  newr  formations  are  likely 
to  be  engendered  by  tissues  which  are  irritated  by  being 
kept  in  a  state  of  constant  congestion.  So  with  the  larynx 
when  the  voice  is  frequently  over-exerted.  The  existence 
of  anything  of  the  kind  in  the  larynx  is  almost  imme- 
diately felt  by  the  singer,  because  so  slight  an  alteration 
in  the  normal  condition  of  the  parts  disturbs  the  forma- 
tion of  the  high  notes.  But  the  speaker  may  often  go 
on  until  the  growth  attains  a  considerable  size  without 
suffering  much  inconvenience.  If  not  properly  reme- 
died, polypi  of  the  larynx  sometimes  lead  to  complete 
loss  of  voice. 

Influences  of  Aerial  Motion. 

We  have  already  seen  how  a  violent  effort  of  the  ex- 
piratory muscles  is  transmitted  by  the  body  of  air  in  the 


io6  THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  VOICE. 

chest  so  as  to  provoke  a  tantamount  action  of  those  of 
the  larynx.  Thus,  the  one  set  of  muscles  strives  to 
expel,  and  the  other  to  confine,  the  current  of  breath. 

A  further  phenomenon  of  such  compression  of  air  in 
the  thoracic  cavity  has  to  be  considered  here,  viz.,  its 
effect  on  the  lungs  themselves.  In  this  connection  we 
find  another  cause  of  loss  of  respiratory  power  ;  for  the 
delicate  air-cells  of  the  lungs  yield  suddenly  or  gradually 
before  the  pressure  and  become  dilated.  The  conse- 
quence is  immediate  laceration  and  subsequent  oblite- 
ration of  the  complex  arrangements  of  fine  blood-vessels 
on  their  walls  which  necessarily  exist  in  order  to  allow  of 
the  performance  of  the  essential  pulmonary  functions. 
By  such  an  occurrence  a  portion  of  the  lung  is  irre- 
coverably lost  as  regards  respiration,  and  if  the  injury 
is  at  all  extensive  a  decided  dyspnoea,  or  shortness  of 
breath,  results,  which  of  course  may  be  translated  into 
an  equivalent  diminution  of  vocal  power. 

The  mode  of  inspiration  adopted  or  necessitated  in 
speaking  or  singing,  as  already  dwelt  on  in  one  connec- 
tion, forms  one  of  the  most  important  hygienic  relations 
of  professional  voice  practice.  It  has  still,  however,  to 
be  dealt  with  under  another  aspect,  which  draws  our  at- 
tention to  the  distinction  between  breathing  through 
the  nose  or  mouth.  As  a  rule,  we  inspire  through  the 
nose,  and  there  are  cogent  reasons  why  that  method  of 
breathing  should  be  regarded  as  beneficial  and  pro- 
tective. 

In  the  first  place,  the  atmosphere  is  almost  always 
much  colder  than  the  blood,  and  for  this  reason,  if  it 
were  allowed  to  impinge  in  a  direct  current  on  the 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  VOICE.  107 

lining  membrane  of  the  air-passages  or  Lung-cells,  Buch 
a  disturbance  of  function  would  be  likely  to  ensue 
as  would  lead  to  inflammation  of  those  parts.  Jl  is 
therefore  indicated  thai  the  air,  before  arriving  in  the 
windpipe  and  Lungs,  should  be  warmed.  This  require- 
ment is  usually  fulfilled  by  the  nose.  For  as  the  brent  b 
is  drawn  through  the  several  narrow  nasal  channels,  into 
which  each  nostril  subdivides,  its  temperature  is  consi- 
derably augmented,  and  by  the  time  that  it  has  passed 
down  the  whole  length  of  the  pharynx  to  the  larynx  it 
has  arrived  nearly  at  blood-heat. 

In  the  next  place,  the  atmosphere  is  full  of  impuri- 
ties which  ought  to  be  eliminated  from  it  before  it  passes 
into  the  interior  of  the  body.  As  maybe  seen  in  a  sun- 
beam, numberless  particles  of  an  infinite  smallness  are 
continually  floating  around  us,  and  these  being  collected 
and  examined  by  the  microscope  are  found  to  consist  of 
substances  derived  from  every  kingdom  of  nature.  The 
fine  dust  of  metals  and  of  minerals  is  mingled  with  the 
pollen  grains  of  the  highest  orders  of  plants,  with  the 
germs  of  the  very  simplest  forms  of  vegetation,  algte 
and  fungi,  and  even  with  the  living  bodies  of  minute 
animalcules.1  The  air  is  also  contaminated  by  diverse 
gaseous  emanations,  such  as  the  carbonic  acid  proceed- 
ing from  animal  respiration,  putrid  effluvia  from  drains, 

Parkes,  Manual  of  Practical  Hygiene,  p.  93.  The  aii  is  bo 
crowded  with  active  germs  thai  if  a  vessel  of  the  purest  water  be 
left  exposed  to  it,  i1  \\  ill  soon  swarm  with  countless  growing  atoms 
of  animal  and  plant  life;  to  such  an  extent,  thai  Eormerlyil  was 
believed  thai  the  agency  a1  work  could  be  none  other  than  spon- 
taneous generation.  See  Tyndall,  On  Dust  and  Disease,  in  Frag- 
ments  of  Science,  L875,  p,  126. 


io8  THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  VOICE. 

marsh  miasmata,  etc.,  and  by  various  subtile  essences, 
incapable  of  being  recognised  by  scientific  tests,  gene- 
rated by  diseased  processes  in  the  human  body.  The 
atmosphere  forms,  therefore,  a  rich  reservoir  whence 
injurious  matters  may  find  their  way  into  the  animal 
economy.  In  passing  through  the  nose,  however,  the 
air  becomes  very  much  purified,  because  almost  all  dust 
is  arrested  in  the  narrow  and  tortuous  meatus,  especially 
so  on  account  of  the  lining  membrane  (pituitary)  being 
generally  covered  with  a  superabundance  of  fluid  secre- 
tion in  which  the  foreign  particles  may  adhere  and 
accumulate,  and  with  which  they  may  be  afterwards 
expelled  from  the  body. 

Such  facts  indicate  clearly  that  nasal  inspiration 
exerts  an  important  protective  power,  local  and  general, 
over  the  health.  Hence  we  can  understand  the  fervour 
with  which  Professor  Tyndall  exclaims  that  if  he  could 
leave  a  perpetual  legacy  to  mankind  he  would  embody 
it  in  the  words,  '  Keep  your  mouth  shut.'  But  in  ad- 
dressing an  audience  it  is  difficult,  and  in  singing  pro- 
bably impossible,  to  avoid  inspiring  habitually  through 
the  open  mouth.  Because,  as  before  pointed  out,1  in 
the  professional  use  of  the  voice,  in  order  that  expiration 
may  be  prolonged  as  much  as  possible,  the  lungs  must 
be  inflated  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  in  ordinary 
breathing.  And  at  each  inspiration  the  replenishment 
of  the  chest  must  be  effected  by  a  rapid  gush  through 
the  mouth,  because  the  nostrils  will  only  permit  the 
passage  of  a  small  stream  of  air.  Under  these  circum- 
stances the  inside  of  the  throat,  and  perhaps  the  lungs, 

1  See  page  74. 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  VOICE.  109 

may  suffer  in  three  ways,  i.e.  (l)from  the  coldness  of 
the  air,  (2)  from  its  drying  influence  as  it  rushes  in  a 
large  body  over  the  mucous  membrane,  which  in  this 
situation  does  not,  like  that  of  the  nose,  contain  glands 
sufficiently  active  and  numerous  to  keep  the  surface 
moist  if  exposed  to  a  moving  atmosphere,  and  (3)  from 
Lodgment  of  dust.  By  such  pernicious  influences  the 
mucous  membrane  is  irritated  and  may  become  con- 
gested, whilst  the  muscles  beneath  lose  their  vigour  and 
become  relaxed.  Hence  arises  sore  and  relaxed  throat 
which  interferes  with  the  activity  of  the  vocal  organs 
and  deteriorates  the  qualities  of  the  voice;  or  trouble- 
some dryness,  causing  stiffness  of  the  throat,  may  be 
produced  with  equally  damaging  results  as  regards  voice. 
And  according  to  some  observers,  breathing  through  the 
mouth  is  a  principal  exciting  clause  of  glandular  sore- 
throat.  For  the  muciparous  glands,  before  mentioned, 
suffer  from  the  congestion  of  the  mucous  membrane  in 
which  they  are  situated,  and  also  because  they  are 
stimulated  to  an  abnormal  excess  of  function  in  order 
to  preserve  the  rapidly  drying  surface  in  a  state  of 
moisture.  Thus  they  inflame,  swell,  become  choked, 
and  present  all  the  phenomena  described  in  the  last 
section. 

The  foregoing  observations  make  it  plainly  visible 
that  every  precaution  should  betaken  in  order  to  reduce 
to  a  minimum  the  evil  of  inspiring  through  the  mouth. 
In  speaking,  the  nostrils  will  usually  furnish  enough  air, 
unless  in  occasional  declamations  where  great  vehemence 
is  demanded.  That  the  orator  will  find  assiduous  atten- 
tion to   breathing  through   th.-  nose,   whenever  practi- 


no  THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  VOICE. 

cable,  a  most  effective  agent  for  the  preservation  of  his 
voice,  may  be  considered  as  proved  by  experience  on  the 
testimony  of  numerous  eminent  teachers  of  elocution.1 
We  even  find  that  in  the  last  century  the  knowledge  of 
this  hygienic  fact,  then  only  recognised  by  experts,  was 
believed  to  be  of  such  value  to  the  professional  speaker, 
that  it  was  often  sold  for  a  large  sum  under  a  pledge  of 
secrecy.2 

To  the  singer,  nasal  breathing  is  of  equal  moment,  in 
order  to  maintain  the  sanity  of  the  throat  and  the  purity 
of  the  voice.  The  exigencies  of  vocal  melody,  however, 
scarcely  allow  of  any  exception  to  the  rule  that  inspi- 
ration must  always  be  performed  rapidly  through  the 
mouth.  Nevertheless,  this  disadvantage  of  the  singer, 
as  contrasted  with  the  orator,  is  counterbalanced  by  the 
fact  that,  whereas  a  speech  or  lecture  may  entail  inces- 
sant use  of  the  voice  for  a  couple  of  hours  or  more,  a 
song  rarely  lasts  more  than  a  few  minutes,  and  even 
the  most  arduous  role  in  an  opera  is  composed  of  de- 
tached songs,  between  which  there  are  usually  ample 
intervals  of  rest.  In  such  intervals,  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  throat  has  an  opportunity  to  return  to  its 
natural  state,  if  it  has  become  in  any  degree  irritable  or 
dry  during  singing.  The  vocalist  should  remember  this 
fact,  so  that  when  off  the  scene  or  platform,  he  may  not 
engage  too  much  in  conversation,  especially  if  he  has 
any  throat  sensations  which  indicate  irritation  of  the 
part.  He  should  also  be  on  his  guard  against  being 
led  into  the  habit  of  breathing  constantly  through  the 

1  See  Pliimptre,  King's  College  Lectures  on  Elocution,  1876,  p.  59. 

2  Ibid.  p.  62. 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  VOICE.  m 

month,  because  compelled  lo  do  so  while  singing  Ins 
part.    Inattention  to  these  matters  has  doubtless  been 

the  ruin  of  many  good  singers,  and  it  is  only  those  gifted 
by  nature  with  excessive  strength,  constitutional  and  of 
the  vocal  organs,  who  can  sometimes  afford  to  disregard 
them  and  escape  with  impunity.1  Such  rare  examples, 
however,  should  not  be  allowed  to  mislead  others  into 
running  unnecessary  risk. 

Singers  should  generally  beware  of  singing  in  the 
open  air,  especially  in  cold  or  damp  weather.  Singing 
on  the  water  in  the  evening  has  sometimes  been  followed 
by  disastrous  consequences  as  regards  the  voice. 

Simple  Voice  Remedies  with  Local  Action. 

Almost  all  persons  who  use  the  voice  professionally 
resort  to  swallowing  from  time  to  time  some  local  ap- 
plication, with  the  view  of  keeping  the  throat  cool  and 
moist  whilst  speaking  or  singing.  Such  remedies  usually 
partake  more  of  a  dietetic  than  of  a  medicinal  nature, 
and  vary  according  to  the  taste  and  fancy  of  the  indi- 
vidual. It  is  only  certain  that  the  irritation  of  the 
throat,  caused  by  its  exercise  and  exposure,  can  be  re- 
lieved and  the  vocal  powers  assisted,  by  bringing  some 

1  It  is  a  well-observed  fact  that  the  greatest  singers  rarely  have 
anything  the  matter  with  their  voices,  ami  it  is  equally  well  assured 
that  this  is  not  always  to  be  attributed  to  the  judicious  care  which 
they  take  of  their  health.  They  owe  their  pre-eminence  chiefly  to 
great  physical  strength  and  soundness  of  the  vocal  organs,  and  to 
t lie  same  cause  may  be  ascribed  this  comparative  immunity  from 
disease.  The  vocalists  who  suffer  mosl  arc  those  of  medium  rank, 
sometimes  from  carelessness  anil  faulty  voice-production,  sometimes 
from  the  natural  tone  of  the  vocal  organs  being  unequal  to  the  tax 
pin  on  them  by  professional  singing. 


ii2  THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  VOICE. 

suitable  substance  in  contact  with  the  mucous  mem- 
brane at  proper  intervals.  Slight  throat  symptoms,  aris- 
ing from  tiring  the  voice,  are  also  frequently  treated  in 
a  homely  fashion  by  some  popular  medicaments  or  nos- 
trums. A  few  remarks  and  recommendations  are,  there- 
fore, called  for  here  respecting  these  classes  of  remedies. 

At  the  head  of  the  list  stands  the  traditional  glass  of 
cold  water  of  the  speaker.  Notwithstanding  its  simpli- 
city, I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  sipping  of  cold  water 
is  one  of  the  worst  habits  that  could  be  contracted  with 
the  object  of  keeping  the  voice  in  good  order.  My  rea- 
sons for  arriving  at  this  decision  are  two.  In  the  first 
place,  when  the  throat  is  dry  the  wetting  power  of  water 
is  very  slight,  because  it  will  scarcely  adhere  to  a  parched 
mucous  membrane.  Secondly,  if  there  is  congestion  of 
the  throat,  as  betrayed  by  a  feeling  of  heat,  the  effect 
of  a  douche  of  cold  water  is  ultimately  to  increase  that 
congestion,  for  the  blood  is  only  momentarily  driven 
away,  and  returns  in  a  few  minutes,  by  reaction,  in  a 
larger  quantity.  The  familiar  example  of  the  cold  bath, 
which  is  generally  the  best  of  all  possible  means  for  mak- 
ing the  skin  glow,  will  illustrate  this  point.  In  the  case 
of  the  throat,  a  temporary  relief  is  of  course  experienced, 
but  reactive  congestion  quickly  sets  in,  and  the  demand 
for  a  draught  of  cold  water  is  greater  than  ever.  For 
these  considerations,  therefore,  I  think  it  advisable  that 
orators  should  discard  the  use  of  cold  water  whilst 
speaking. 

Better  than  plain  cold  water,  is  the  eau  sucree,  that 
is  such  a  favourite  beverage  with  the  French,  or  gum- 
water,  rice-water,  whey,  milk,  or  thin  beef  tea,  as  occa- 


THE  HYGIENE   OF  THE   VOICE.  113 

donally  used  by  some  speakers.  Xor  can  we  disappi 
of  the  tragacanth  draughts1  to  which  the  ancient  Bophista 
had  recourse,  because  all  these  liquids  have  Borne  con- 
sistency and  an  adhesive  power,  so  that  after  they  are 
drunk,  the  lining  membrane  of  \  he  t  hroal  may  he  covered 
and  protected  for  some  little  time  hy  a  thin,  moist  film. 
But,  under  all  circumstances,  the  coldness  should  he  got 
rid  of,  and  whatever  is  drunk  during  speaking-,  or  iu  the 
intervals  of  singing,  should  have  a  temperature  near,  hut 
below,  that  of  the  body,  viz.,  98°  Fahr.,  or  at  least  it 
should  not  be  colder  than  60°  Fahr.  The  proper  degree 
of  heat  can  best  be  determined  by  sensation,  and  if  the 
drink  feels  at  all  chilly  whilst  passing  down  the  throat, 
it  may  be  decided  to  be  too  cold.  At  the  same  time  it 
should  not  be  too  warm ;  a  neutral  temperature,  so  to 
speak,  should  be  obtained.  In  warm  weather,  of  course, 
the  drink  will  not  require  to  be  warmed ;  but  a  special 
warning  must  be  entered  against  taking  iced  water,  or 
anything  iced,  whilst  the  voice  is  being  exercised.  The 
amount  of  liquid  taken  should  also  be  limited  to  a  small 
quantity,  so  as  to  avoid  any  chance  of  overcharging  the 
Btomach.  Much  difference  as  to  the  amount  of  drink 
required  exists  in  various  persons ;  some,  indeed,  have 
naturally  so  much  moisture  in  the  throat  as  to  want 
little  or  none  at  all.  Beer  or  wines,  as  containing  al- 
cohol, call  for  consideration  in  another  place. 

1  As  related  i>.\  Synesius  in  Dion.  The  compound  tragacanth 
powder  of  the  British  Pharmacopoeia,  containing  equal  parts  of  tra- 
gacanth, starch,  and  sugar,  may  1  >c  used  to  make  a  lubricating  <1rink 
fur  the  throat.  Aboul  a  teaspoonfu]  may  be  added  to  a  pint  of 
water.  It  should  first,  however,  he  well  mixed  with  a  little  water 
and  then  diluted. 

I 


114  THE  HYGIENE   OF  THE    VOICE. 

Another  class  of  remedies  for  lubricating  the  throat 
have  more  of  a  solid  character.  To  this  division  may 
be  relegated  eggs  beaten  up,  and  all  kinds  of  gelatinous 
or  gummy  fruits,  and  bonbons.  As  a  rule,  such  sub- 
stances should  be  avoided  as  likely  to  clog  the  throat 
and  stomach.  They  are  particularly  unsuited  to  per- 
sons whose  mouth  and  fauces  are  naturally  dry ;  but 
those  who  have  a  copious  flow  of  saliva  may  sometimes 
use  them  with  more  advantage  than  liquids.  In  such 
cases,  the  act  of  chewing  or  sucking  stimulates  the  sali- 
vary glands,  so  that  the  substance  is  completely  dis- 
solved and  the  throat  is  well  moistened.  To  persons 
for  whom  remedies  of  this  class  are  suitable,  I  should 
recommend  lozenges  or  jujubes  of  pure  glycerine  or 
gum.1 

1  It  may  be  interesting  and  not  uninstructive  to  read  the  follow- 
ing information  which  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette  (1869,  vol.  ii.  pp.  676, 
714)  reproduces  from  a  Vienna  paper  as  to  the  refreshments  taken 
by  some  distinguished  opera  singers  to  '  keep  their  voices  in  good 
order  '  during  the  performance.  '  Each,  it  appears,  has  his  or  her 
own  peculiar  specific.  The  Swedish  tenor,  Labatt,  takes  "  two  salted 
cucumbers  "  for  a  dose,  and  declares  that  this  vegetable  is  the  best 
thing  in  the  world  for  strengthening  the  voice  and  giving  it  "  the 
true  metallic  ring.''  The  other  singers,  however,  do  not  seem  to  be 
of  this  opinion.  Sontheim  takes  a  pinch  of  snuff  and  drinks  cold 
lemonade  ;  Wachtel  eats  the  yolk  of  an  egg  beaten  up  with  sugar  ; 
Steger,  "the  most  corpulent  of  tenors,"  drinks  "the  brown  juice  of 
the  gambrinus  ;  "  Walter,  cold  black  coffee  ;  Nieman,  champagne  ; 
and  Tichratchek,  mulled  claret.  Ferenczy,  the  tenor,  smokes  one  or 
two  cigars,  which  his  colleagues  regard  as  so  much  poison.  Mdlle. 
Braun-Brini  takes  after  the  first  act  a  glass  of  beer,  after  the  third 
and  fourth  a  cup  of  cafe-au-lait,  and  before  the  great  duet  in  the 
fourth  act  of  "The  Huguenots,"  always  a  bottle  of  Moet  Cremant 
Rose.  Nachbaur  munches  bonbons  during  the  performance ; 
Riibsam,  the  baritone,  drinks  mead  ;  Mitterwurzer  and  Kindermann 
suck  dried  plums ;  Robinson,  another  baritone,  drinks  soda-water ; 


7 HE  HYGIENE  OF  THE   VOICE.  115 

So  far,  I  have  only  spoken  of  adjuvants  to  the  voice 
in  health,  while  undergoing  exertion.   In  manj  ii 

however,  when  slight  hoarseness  or  weakness  of  the  vocal 
organs  is  present,  the  sufferers  have  recourse  to  remedies 
with  more  or  less  decided  medicinal  properties.  The  va- 
rious voice  or  cough  lozenges  that  are  sold  belong  to  this 
class.  Of  these  there  are  about  four  kinds,  viz.,  those 
that  contain  (1)  cayenne,  (2)  cubebs,  (3)  some  expec- 
torant, and  (4)  opium  or  morphia.  Their  applicability 
may  be  discussed  separately. 

1.  The  effect  of  cayenne  on  the  throat  is  to  stimu- 
late or  irritate  the  mucous  membrane,  by  which  more 

Formes  takes  porter,  and  Arabanek  Gumpoldskirchner,  wine  !  The 
celebrated  baritone  Beck,  on  the  other  hand,  takes  nothing  at  all, 
and  refuses  to  speak.  Draxler  smokes  Turkish  tobacco,  and  drinks 
a  glass  of  beer.  Another  singer,  Dr.  Scbmid,  regulates  his  diet 
according  to  the  state  of  his  voice  at  the  time.  Sometimes  he 
drinks  coffee,  sometimes  tea,  and  a  quarter  of  an  boor  afterwards 
lemonade,  mead,  or  champagne,  taking  snuff  between  whiles,  and 
eating  apples,  plums,  and  dry  bread.'  .  .  .  » Malibran  never  sang 
better  than  when  she  had  drank  at  least  a  pot  of  porter  out  of  the 
pewter  pot — the  more  difficult  the  music  the  larger  the  quantity. 
Grisi  drank  always  bottles  of  Dublin  stout  between  the  acts,  and  if 
she  had  to  sing  a  stormy  character  the  dose  was  strengthened. 
French  singers  prefer  simply  emt  8UOrSt  ;  the  Spaniards  take  strong 
cups  of  chocolate,  followed  bj-  glasses  of  water  sugared  and  lemoned. 
The  Italians  like  eggs  beaten  up  -imply,  or  with  wine.'  As  a  rule, 
operatic  singers  are  described  as  very  tempera t e,  •  tiny  dine  early 
on  the  day  they  sing,  they  take  as  little  as  possible,  and  they  receive 
very  few  visitors  before  they  have  to  sing.'  Mandl  (HygUno  de  la 
p.  <>t3),  from  another  paper  culls  the  further  information  that 
'  Mdmc.  Sontag  takes,  in  the  entr'actes,  sardines ;  Mdme.  Desparre, 
warm  water;  Mdme.  C'ruvelli,  Bordeaux  mixed  with  champag 
MdmeAd.  Patti,  seltzer- water ;  Mdme.  Nilsson,  beer;  Mdme.  Cabel, 
-:  Mdme.  Ogalde, prunes j  Mdme.  Trebelli,  strawberries ;  Troy, 
milk:  Mario  smokes;  Mdme.  Borghi-Mamo  takes  snuff  j  and  Mdme, 
Dorus-Gras  used  to  eat  cold  meat  behind  the  scenes.' 

i  2 


u6  THE  HYGIENE   OF  THE    VOICE. 

blood  is  sent  to  the  part,  i.e.,  some  congestion  is  pro- 
duced. Such  action  would  be  highly  injurious  if  some 
disorder  of  voice  were  present  which  actually  arose  from 
congestion.  On  the  other  hand,  should  there  be  a  weak- 
ness of  the  voice  dependent  on  an  ansemic  or  bloodless 
state  of  the  throat,  cayenne  might  be  a  very  serviceable 
application.  As,  however,  it  is  too  much  to  expect  an 
unskilled  observer  in  disease  to  distinguish  between  the 
two  conditions,  especially  in  his  own  person,  I  can  only 
advise  that  lozenges  containing  cayenne  be  discarded  as 
a  popular  voice  remedy. 

2.  Cubebs  is  often  valuable  where  there  is  a  great 
deal  of  expectoration.  If  the  throat  be  at  all  dry,  it  is 
most  likely  to  do  harm.  Lozenges  manufactured  with 
cubebs  may  generally  be  recognised  by  a  biting,  bitter 
taste — it  is  a  weak  kind  of  pepper  in  fact. 

3.  Cough  lozenges  are  generally  composed  of  harm- 
less ingredients,  unless  they  contain  (4)  opium  or  its 
active  principle,  morphia.  Opium,  in  any  form,  should 
never  be  taken  without  medical  advice.  It  usually  has 
a  parching  effect  on  the  throat,  and  throws  the  diges- 
tive system  into  disorder.  In  most  instances,  it  is, 
therefore,  likely  to  exert  a  deleterious  influence  over 
the  vocal  powers. 

From  the  foregoing  observations  it  may  be  inferred 
that  popular  medicinal  remedies  should  be  generally 
eschewed ;  not  that  they  are  an  unalloyed  evil  in  the 
abstract,  but  because  any  drug  indiscriminately  applied 
will  probably  injure  as  many  cases  as  it  benefits. 


THE  HYGIENE  OF   THE   VOICE,  117 

G-enbral  Hygiene  in  its  Relations  to  the  Voicb. 

Under  this  1 1  < •: n  1  i  1 1 ;_;-  we  may  discuss,  in  the  fir>t  j>l:i *•< % 
how  far  the  health  of  the  body  may  be  affected  by  the 

systematic  exercise  of  the  voice  ;  and  secondly,  to  what 
extent  the  voice  may  derive  benefit  or  suffer  from  the 
general  habits  and  surroundings  of  the  individual. 

Effects  of  Regular  Vocal  Exercise  on  the  Animal 

Economy. 

The  ancient  physicians  believed,  from  experience, 
that  a  vigorous  course  of  declamation  was  one  of  the 
most  salutary  and  health-preserving  exercises  that  could 
be  practised,  and  theyjdierefore  prescribed  it  systematic- 
ally as  an  important  curative  agent  in  many  debilitat- 
ing diseases.  Although  modern  practitioners  have  not 
exactly  followed  their  example,  the  principle  that  in- 
creased respiratory  movements  are  highly  beneficial  in 
the  treatment  of  invalids  from  pulmonary  maladies  is 
fully  recognised.  Some  efforts  have  also  been  made, 
and  are  still  in  course  of  maturation,  to  inflate  the  lungs 
in  certain  affections  beyond  their  ordinary  capacity,  by 
means  of  artificial  instruments,  such  as  the  compressed- 
air  apparatus  of  Waldenburg,  and  promising  results  have 
already  been  obtained. 

There  is.  indeed,  considerable  statistical  evidence  to 
prove  that  the  professional  use  of  the  voice  exercises  an 
important  prophylactic  influence  against  the  develop- 
ment of  consumption,  and  several  investigators  have 
shown  by  statistical  evidence  that  a  remarkably  small 


nS  THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE    VOICE. 

relative  percentage  of  singers,  orators,  public  criers, 
&c,  fall  a  victim  to  that  disease. 

The  general  well-being  of  the  constitution  is  pro- 
moted by  voice-practice,  because  the  wider  chest-move- 
ments accelerate  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  at  the  same 
time  that  they  cause  a  more  ample  flow  of  fresh  air  in 
and  out  of  the  lungs.  The  obstacle  to  expiration  offered 
by  the  contraction  of  the  glottis  during  phonation,  con- 
fers a  greater  penetrating  power  on  the  pulmonary  air, 
which  therefore  permeates  the  minute  bronchi,  and  dis- 
tends the  air- vesicles  of  the  lungs  more  effectively.1  Thus 
the  blood  attains  a  higher  oxygenation  and  greater 
purity,  by  which  qualities  it  gains  in  power  of  stimulating 
the  vital  activities  of  the  various  tissues  of  the  body  as 
it  courses  through  them.  Effete  matters  are  freely  cast 
off,  and  new  wholesome  material  is  assimilated  in  in- 
creased amount.  The  appetite,  so  to  speak,  of  the 
various  corporeal  structures  becomes  more  keen,  and 
they  are  thus  subjected  to  an  exalted  nutrition.  And, 
moreover,  these  effects  have  a  certain  permanency  on 
account  of  the  gains  to  the  thoracic  capacity  derived 
from  the  habitual  increase  of  lung  expansion  necessi- 
tated by  constant  vocal  exercise. 

The  mode  in  which  the  voice  is  used  alters,  of  course, 

considerably  the  sanitary  aspects  of  the  exercise,  and  a 

proper   method  of  voice-production,  according  to  the 

indications  already  given,  must  be  pursued.    A  division 

of  another  kind  may  also,  however,  be  regarded  here, 

1  Cnvier,  according  to  Combe  {Physiology  applied  to  Health,  pp. 
121,  206),  believed  that  he  was  saved  from  incipient  consumption 
by  receiving  a  professorship  which  obliged  him  to  lecture  for  some 
hours  daily. 


THE  HYGIENE  OF   THE   VOICE.  119 

and  the  four  degrees  of  voice-practice,  viz.,  conversing, 
reading  aloud,  declaiming,  and  singing,  may  be  alluded 
to  in  relation  to  their  gymnastic  efficiency.  Thus  in 
ordinary  conversation,  the  vital  activities  are  stimulated 
least  of  all  ;  in  reading  aloud,  fatigue  is  apt  to  super- 
vene rapidly,  because  the  posture,  especially  if  the  per- 
son be  seated,  is  somewhat  constrained,  and  freedom  of 
act  ion  is  limited  by  the  attention  being  concentrated  on 
the  text ;  in  declamation  and  singing,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  is  ample  scope  for  respiratory  play  and  appropriate 
gesture  or  carriage  of  the  body. 

The  ill  effects  of  exaggerated  vocal  labour  on  the 
health  are,  generally,  those  of  any  kind  of  overwork, 
i.e.,  lassitude,  depression,  loss  of  appetite  and  sluggish 
performance  of  the  various  vital  functions.  Specially, 
they  are  the  result  of  any  particular  accident  that  may 
occur,  such  as  emphysema,  by  which  a  portion  of  the 
lung  is  lost  to  respiration,  and  a  permanent  diminution 
of  thoracic  capacity,  with  consequent  impairment  of  the 
constitution,  results.  Or  a  vein  in  the  lungs  may  be 
ruptured,  and  loss  of  blood  occasion  a  long  illness,  with 
subsequent  obstinate  debility.  Or  an  overflow  of  blood 
to  the  head,  inducing  congestion  of  the  brain,  apoplexy, 
etc.,  may  arise  from  a  violent  vocal,  as  from  any  other 
inordinate,  effort.1      Lastly,   the    forcible   compression 

1  Anligonus  Doson,  King  of  Macedonia  (Plutarch,  in  Vita  Cleo- 
math),  and  Valenl inian  I.,  Roman  emperor  (Suidas,  sub  Adas),  are 
reported  ix  have  died  in  giving  vent  to  an  excited  exclamal  ion.  In 
the  former  case  a  blood-vessel  burst,  and  blood  issued  from  the 
mouth;  and  in  the  latter  some  kind  of  a  lit  supervened.  Seneca 
Beems  i"  allude  in  accidents  "L'  this  class  as  if  they  were  of  frequent 
occurrence.— lit  Brcvitate  Yiitc,  c.  2.     Blowing  a  violent  ''last  on  a 


120  THE  HYGIENE   OF  THE    VOICE. 

of  the  abdominal  organs  may  cause  some  of  the  viscera 
of  that  cavity  to  protrude  beyond  the  limits  assigned  to 
them  by  nature,  forming  the  condition  known  as  hernia. 

Influences  of  Mode  of  Life  on  the  Voice. 
Man,  in  order  to  live  and  preserve  health,  must  con- 
form to  certain  natural  laws,  which  impel  him  to  take 
food,  to  sleep,  to  take  exercise,  etc.  He  is  also  subjected 
to  various  terrestrial  influences  derived  from  diverse  con- 
ditions of  earth  and  air,  which  affect  him  potently  with 
respect  to  his  health.  Such  esoteric  and  exoteric  forces 
do  not,  however,  hold  him  in  fast  servitude,  but,  whilst 
allowing  him  a  considerable  freedom  of  choice,  merely 
instigate  him  gently  towards  the  course  he  should  select. 
He  is  called  on,  therefore,  constantly  to  exert  his  judg- 
ment, and  he  enjoys  extensive  powers  of  avoiding  evil, 
and  of  taking  refuge  in  good.  To  such  contingencies 
hygiene  owes  its  existence,  and  it  may  thus  be  defined 
as  the  science  which  teaches  the  recognition  and  prac- 
tice of  what  is  best  for  health.  Amidst  the  many  rami- 
fications of  this  wide  subject  we  may  notice  here  with 
brevity  the  bearing  of  the  principal  factors  that  make 
up  life  on  the  function  under  examination. 

I.  Alimentation. — Every  action  of  the  animal  body, 
whether  mental  or  muscular,  is  accomplished  at  the  ex- 
pense, and  accompanied  by  the  destruction,  of  a  portion 
of  the  fabric  of  which  it  is  composed.  That  which  is 
destroyed  is  at  once  carried  away  and  cast  off  from  the 

wind-instrument  has  also  caused  sudden  death  in  a  similar  manner. 
For  instances,  see  Lucian,  Harmonides,  and  Ramazzini,  Be  MorMs 
Artificvm,  Ultrajecti,  1703,  c.  xl. 


THE  HYGIENE  OF   THE   VOICE.  121 

body,  and  in  its  place  fresh  material  supplied  by  the 
blood  is  laid  down.    Hence  the  de-ire  for  aliment,  which 

is  received  into  the  stomach  and.  il'  solid,  is  there  di- 
gested until  brought  to  such  a  stale  of  fluidity  that  the 
suitable  part  of  it  may  be  conveyed  into  the  blood,  as 
the  whole  mass  passes  through  the  long  tract  of  intes- 
tine. Thus  the  stomach  and  intestines  feed  the  blood, 
and  the  blood  feeds  the  tissues.  The  material  primarily 
introduced  into  the  stomach  may  be  of  two  kinds,  viz., 
food  and  drink,  which  may  be  considered  separately. 

1.  Food. — About  two- thirds  of  the  body  of  man  is 
composed  of  water,  and  the  remaining  one-third  consists 
of  substances  supplied  by  the  solids  of  the  food  naturally 
taken  by  him.  These  latter  may  be  conveniently  dis- 
tributed into  four  classes,  i.e.,  into  (1  )  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances, richest  in  flesh  or  meat,  (2)  fatty  or  oleaginous 
matters,  (3)  starchy  or  saccharine  (sugar)  compounds, 
and  (4)  mineral  matters,  or  salts.  A  supply  of  all  these 
different  kinds  of  food  is  necessary  to  maintain  the  body 
in  health,  and  they  are,  therefore,  found  in  proper  pro- 
portion in  the  natural  provision  of  milk.  Thus,  cheese 
is  a  nitrogenous  substance,  butter  a  fatty  matter,  lactose, 
or  sugar  of  milk,  represents  the  starchy  or  saccharine 
class,  and  there  are  also  abundant  salts,  the  whole  being 
dissolved  in  water. 

Although  meat  or  animal  food  is  richest  in  nitrogen, 
there  exists  an  abundant  quantity  of  thai  clement  in 
many  vegetables,  such  as  wheat,  beans,  peas,  etc.  It  is 
consequently  practicable  to  live  in  health  without  eat- 
ing any  meat,  and  on  this  account  some  persons  advocate 


122  THE  HYGIENE   OF  THE    VOICE. 

a  purely  vegetable  diet.  As  far  as  the  comparative  nu- 
tritiveness  of  meat  and  vegetables  is  concerned,  there 
appears  to  be  little  distinction,  if  we  may  judge  by  con- 
trasting carnivorous  animals  with  those  who  are  entirely 
herbivorous.  Thus  the  lion  and  tiger,  though  fiercer, 
more  combative,  and  more  agile,  because  of  the  actions 
they  have  to  perform  in  order  to  supply  themselves  with 
food,  are  not  in  reality  stronger  or  more  enduring  than 
the  more  docile  horse,  ox,  or  elephant.  The  inference 
to  be  drawn  from  such  observations  is  that  each  animal 
should  have  the  kind  of  food  to  which  its  mode  of  life 
has  accustomed  it,  because  its  digestive  organs  obtain 
by  habit  facilities  for  disposing  of  certain  substances, 
whilst  their  healthy  action  is  likely  to  be  disturbed  by 
strange  sorts  of  aliment. 

European  races  have  mostly  used  a  mixed  diet  of 
flesh  and  vegetables  for  as  long  as  there  are  any  records 
to  prove  the  fact,  and  it  seems  therefore  unadvisable  to 
attempt  any  change  in  this  respect.  Another  point, 
however,  which  deserves  consideration  is  that  a  mixed 
diet  is  more  economical,  because  it  affords  most  nearly 
a  due  proportion  of  the  various  classes  of  solid  aliment 
mentioned  above.  Thus,  in  order  to  obtain  a  proper 
amount  of  each  of  these,  a  man,  if  restricted  to  meat, 
would  have  to  eat  about  seven  pounds  daily.  On  the  other 
hand,  he  could  subsist  on  a  less  quantity  of  bread,  viz., 
about  four  pounds  in  the  twenty-four  hours.  But  when 
taking  both  combined,  a  much  smaller  aggregate  weight 
would  suffice,  namely,  about  one  pound  of  meat  and  a 
pound  and  a  half  of  bread.  Hence  the  duty  of  the 
stomach  would  be  lightened,  and  the  abdominal  viscera 


THE   HYGIENE  OF  THE   VOICE.  123 

would  not  be  loaded  with  a  large  quantity  of  refuse 

matters.  If,  however,  eggs  and  milk  he  added  to  a 
dirt  otherwise  of  vegetable  products,  meat  may  he  al- 
most superseded  as  far  as  hulk  is  concerned. 

An  important  question  in  dietetics  relates  to  flic 
digestibility  of  the  various  substances  used  as  fond. 
Some  kinds  of  food  only  require  to  be  acted  on  for 
an  hour  or  two  before  they  are  brought  to  a  state  to 
yield  up  their  nutrition  to  the  blood;  whilst  others  re- 
main as  long'  as  four  or  five  hours  in  the  stomach,  or 
pass  out  of  the  hody  unchanged,  being  indigestible. 
Tender  meat,  well  masticated,  is  soon  digested  ;  whereas 
tough  meat,  swallowed  without  being  well  divided  by 
the  teeth,  remains  several  hours  in  the  stomach.  The 
digestibility  of  meat  also  varies  according  to  the  man- 
ner of  cooking.  When  boiled  or  stewed  it  is,  as  a  rule, 
more  easily  digested  than  when  roasted  or  baked.  From 
various  experiments  that  have  been  made  it  has  been 
ascertained  that  rice,  tripe,  whipped  eggs,  sago,  tapi- 
oca, barley,  boiled  milk,  raw  eggs,  white  fish,  venison, 
lamb,  parsnips,  mashed  and  baked  potatoes,  and  fri- 
casseed chicken,  in  the  order  given,  are  the  most  easily 
digested  substances.  Thus  rice  disappears  from  the 
stomach  in  one  hour,  and  fricasseed  chicken  in  about 
two  hours  and  three  quarters.  Less  readily  digested 
are  beef,  pork,  mutton,  oysters,  butter,  bread,  veal,  and 
boiled  and  roasted  fowls.  Beef  passes  out  of  the  stomach 
in  three,  and  roast  fowl  in  four  hours.  Salt  beef  and 
salt  pork  require  more  than  four  hours  to  be  digested, 
whilst  fungi,  such  as  truffles  and  mushrooms,  are  in 
great  part  indigestible.     Nutritious  soups,  such  as  beef 


124  THE  HYGIENE   OF  THE    VOICE, 

tea,  mutton  broth,  chicken  broth,  etc.,  are  often  valu- 
able when  the  digestive  system  is  delicate. 

As  regards  the  precautions  in  alimentation  to  be 
observed  with  a  view  to  preserving  the  integrity  of  the 
voice,  it  is  obvious,  in  the  first  place,  that  a  choice 
should  be  made  of  those  articles  of  diet  which  do  not 
tax  excessively  the  powers  of  the  stomach  to  get  rid  of 
them.  Should  the  stomach  be  habitually  subjected  to 
digestive  over-exertion,  it  will  soon  become  inefficient 
in  the  performance  of  its  functions,  and  the  condition 
termed  dyspepsia,  or  imperfect  digestion,  will  be  brought 
on.  In  such  case,  the  direct  consequence  is  that  the 
blood  does  not  receive  a  proper  amount  of  nutrition,  and 
the  body  is  badly  nourished.  Loss  of  flesh  ensues,  the 
muscles  diminish  in  tone  and  vigour,  and  the  strength 
is  impaired.  Amongst  the  rest,  the  muscles  of  the  vocal 
organs  suffer,  and  lose  the  faculty  of  firm  and  ready  con- 
tractility. The  respiratory  apparatus  cannot  expel  the 
air  with  steadiness  and  force,  and  the  laryngeal  muscles 
act  defectively.  Hence  the  voice  becomes  wanting  in 
tone  and  timbre,  and  sounds  weak  and  wavering.  More 
or  less  enervation  is  also  produced,  and  therefore  the 
manner  lacks  energy.  Thus  the  individual  appears 
apathetic,  whilst  his  speech  is  irresolute  and  his  de- 
livery shows  indecision. 

Such  are  the  evils,  variable  in  degree  according  to 
circumstances,  of  dyspepsia,  which  may  arise  in  several 
other  ways,  such  as  irregularity  of  meal  times,  taking 
cold,  excesses  of  all  kinds,  etc. 

Another  point  to  be  observed,  is  to  avoid  exerting 
the  voice  when  the  stomach  is  full.     When  the  process 


Till-.    HYGIENE   OF   THE   VOICE.  125 

ofdigestioo  has  reached  ii  height,  about  an  hour  after 
eating  a  substantial  meal,  the  stomach  is  qoI  only  dis- 
tended with  food,  but  is  also  swollen  through  the  deter- 
mination to  it  of  a  large  quantity  of  blood.     This  state 

of  congestion  is  necessary,  in  order  to  enable  it  to  pour 
out  the  gastric  juice,  which  is  an  indispensable  agent  in 
bringing  the  food  to  a  proper  fluidity.  At  this  time,  there- 
fore, the  proximity  of  the  firm  and  bulky  stomach  to  the 
urider-surface  of  the  diaphragm,  greatly  impedes  the 
contractions  of  that  muscle,  and  thus  reduces  the  ab- 
dominal type  of  respiration  within  narrow  limits.  A 
further  effect  of  the  distended  stomach  is  to  compress 
the  aorta  or  main  trunk  of  the  blood-vessels,  which  are 
distributed  to  the  lower  extremities.  Hence  arises  a 
plethora  of  the  lungs,  which  also  interferes  with  respi- 
ration. For  these  reasons,  even  when  the  body  remain- 
in  a  state  of  repose,  a  certain  shortness  of  breath  is  some- 
times experienced  after  eating.  Such  arrangements 
should  always,  therefore,  be  made  as  to  allow  an  in- 
terval of  three  or  four  hours  or  more  to  elapse  before 
the  voice  is  exerted  after  a  full  meal.1 

Somewhat  similar  to  the  last  mode  of  interference 
with  the  vocal  powers  is  the  operation  of  corpulence. 
The  connection,  indeed,  between  fatness  and  scant ness 
of  breath,  is  almost  proverbial.-     Here  we  have  the  ab- 

1  it  Is  also  asserted  thai  exercise  after  eating  is  injurious,  because 
it  draws  the  blood  away  Erom  the  stomach  to  the  parts  thai  are  in 
activity,  and  bo  interferes  with  digestion.    Combe,  The  Physiology 
of  Dig>  stion,  1800,  cli.  xi. 
'-'  Thus  Shakespeare  : — 

A'.  Our  son  shall  win. 

Q,      He's  i'at  ami  scant  of  breath, 

Jlamht,  Act  v.  E 


126  THE  HYGIENE   OF  THE    VOICE. 

doniinal  organs  rendered  almost  immobile  by  the  depo- 
sition of  fat  between  and  around  them,  and  they  are 
thus  built  up  against  the  diaphragm,  so  as  to  prevent 
its  descent.  The  effects  of  obesity  on  respiration  are 
not,  however,  confined  to  this  quarter,  but  the  motions 
of  the  ribs  are  also  probably  restricted  by  the  chest 
being  wrapt  round  with  a  thick  layer  of  fat.  And 
should  the  action  of  the  heart  be  impeded  by  the 
growth  of  fat  within  the  thoracic  cavity,  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood  will  be  retarded,  and  a  consequent  con- 
gestion of  the  lungs  will  create  a  difficulty  of  breathing. 
Or  the  course  of  the  blood  through  the  various  tissues 
of  the  body  may  be  interrupted  with  a  like  result.  Thus, 
there  are  manifold  reasons  why  a  deterioration  of  voice 
should  be  induced  by  obesity. 

The  tendency  to  corpulence  can  be  combated  very 
effectively  by  paying  strict  attention  to  the  regulation 
of  diet  and  exercise.  As  regards  diet,  the  great  point 
is  the  avoidance,  as  far  as  possible,  of  all  kinds  of  food 
appertaining  to  the  second  and  third  classes,  which  are 
included  under  the  term  carbo-hydrates.  Partial  or 
complete  abstinence  is,  therefore,  necessitated  from  all 
fatty  matters,  such  as  fat  of  meat,  cream,  and  butter ; 
from  starchy  substances,  such  as  white  bread,  potatoes, 
corn  flour,  etc. ;  and  from  saccharine  aliments,  such  as 
sugar,  beet-root,  parsnips,  etc.  A  considerable  variety 
of  dietary  may,  however,  still  be  indulged  in,  and  lean 
meat,  poultry,  game,  white  fish,  brown  bread,  turnips, 
green  vegetables,  and  a  small  allowance  of  milk,  may 
all  be  taken  at  choice.  Such  is  the  system  to  which  a 
good  deal  of  notoriety  was  given  some  years  ago  by 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE   VOL     ,  127 

.Air.  Banting,  a  gentleman  who  by  following  it  had  been 
greatly  benefited.1 

Such  concbi/ments  as  contain  Irritating  principles,  ,  .. 

pepper,  mustard,  curry,  the  many  hot  sauces,  &c,  are 
open  to  the  Bame  objections  as  have  already  been  urged 
against  cayenne  in  w  yoice  lozenges.'  They  are  likely  to 
produce  congestion,  which  may  ultimately  lead  to  thick- 
ening of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  throat,  and  thus 
damage  temporarily  or  permanently  the  purity  of  the 
voice.  Pale  and  delicate  persons,  however,  often  find 
that  they  afford  a  valuable  stimulus  to  digestion,  and  in 
Mich  installers  as  the  opposite  condition  to  congestion 
mostly  prevails,  they  may  often  be  taken  without  harm, 
or  even  with  some  benefit  to  the  vocal  powers. 

A  few  remarks  may  here  be  made  as  to  the  effects  of 
tobacco.  The  action  of  this  herb  on  the  animal  fabric 
is   constitutional  and  local.     Thus  nicotine,  the  name 

1  By  adherence  to  the  following  routine  of  dietary  for  twelve 
months  he  reduced  his  body-weight  from  l'U2  to  150  lbs.  and  bis 
girth  by  \2\  inches.  'Breakfast. — Four  or  five  ounces  of  beef, 
mutton,  kidneys,  boiled  fish,  bacon,  or  any  cold  meat  (except  pork), 
a  large  cup  of  tea  (without  milk  or  sugar),  and  one  ounce  of  dry 
toast.  Dinner. —  Five  or  six  ounces  of  any  fish  (except  salmon  or 
.  any  meal  (except  pork),  any  vegetables  (except  potatoes  or 
rice),  one  ounce  of  dry  toast,  fruit  out  of  any  pudding,  any  kind  of 
poultry  or  game,  and  two  or  three  glasses  of  good  claret,  sherry,  or 
Madeira  (champagne,  port,  or  beer  forbidden).  Ted. — Two  or  three 
ounces  of  fresh  fruit,  or  a  rusk  or  two,  and  a  cup  of  tea  without  milk 
or  sugar.  The  tea  may  be  very  much  enjoyed  when  taken  in  the 
Russian  fashion,  i.e.,  with  a  thick  slice  of  lemon  floating  on  the  top 
instead  >>f  milk.  Snj>j>rr. — Three  or  four  ounces  of  meal  or  ti^h, 
similar  to  dinner,  with  a  glass  or  two  of  claret.  Nightcap,  if  re- 
quired, a  tumbler  of  grog  (gin,  whisky,  or  brandy,  without  sugar), 
or  two  of  claret  or  aherry.'  For  a  fuller  discussion  of  the 
dieting  of  corpulence  £  2  r,  1876,  p.  459. 


128  THE  HYGIENE   OF  THE    VOICE. 

given  to  its  active  principle,  exerts  a  powerful  depres- 
sant influence  over  the  nervous  system,  being  in  fact  a 
virulent  poison,  a  very  small  quantity  of  which,  when 
pure,  would  suffice  to  cause  death  by  prostration.  Per- 
sons, therefore,  who  indulge  to  excess  in  smoking  are 
likely  to  become  nervous,  so  that  their  hand  trembles, 
and  the  command  of  the  brain  over  the  muscles  gene- 
rally is  lessened,  whilst  there  is  a  tendency  to  palpita- 
tion of  the  heart  and  oppressed  breathing.  As  a  natural 
consequence,  there  is  a  failure  to  some  extent  of  the 
vocal  powers,  and  a  hesitation  in  delivery,  the  results, 
on  the  one  hand,  of  the  lack  of  respiratory  vigour,  and, 
on  the  other,  of  enervation.  Habit,  however,  usually 
produces  such  a  tolerance  of  tobacco,  that  the  constitu- 
tional effects  of  moderate  smoking  are  most  frequently 
imperceptible,  unless  in  delicate  individuals. 

As  regards  the  local  injury  that  may  be  sustained 
from  tobacco,  it  consists  in  dryness  and  congestion  of 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth  and  pharynx  from 
their  coming  in  contact  with  the  hot  and  often  acrid 
smoke.  Should  the  membrane  be  naturally  very  active 
in  furnishing  the  necessary  lubricating  secretions,  it  will 
probably  escape  unscathed,  unless  subjected  to  an  inces- 
sant play  of  smoke  from  full-flavoured  cigars.  But  in 
the  opposite  case  it  is  likely  to  become  soon  parched, 
whence  some  hoarseness  or  roughness  of  voice  may  arise. 
In  taking  snuff  the  voice  may  suffer  similarly  if  the 
particles  of  tobacco  pass  backward  from  the  nostrils, 
and  become  lodged  continually  on  the  pharyngeal  mu- 
cous membrane. 

A  further  disadvantage  of  smoking  is  waste  of  saliva, 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE   VOICE.  129 

of  which  tlit*  fumes  of  tobacco  provoke  in  some  persona 
a  profuse;  flow  into  the  mouth  Under  these  circum- 
stances the  salivary  glands  become  exhausted  from  time 
to  time,  and  do  not  supply  the  proper  amount  of  fluid 
during  mastication  of  food.  Hence  some  disorder  of 
digestion  may  arise  with  a  chronic  dyspeptic  tendency, 
which  may  tell  indirectly  on  the  voice  in  the  way  already 
noticed.  Persons,  therefore,  who  are  obliged  to  expec- 
torate much  during  smoking  should  be  on  their  guard 
against  the  abuse  of  the  habit. 

2.  Drink. — Tea,  coffee,  and  cocoa  or  chocolate  con- 
tain active  principles,  termed  respectively  thein,  caffein, 
and  theobromin,  which  have  identical  properties  as  die- 
tetic substances.  In  small  quantities  they  stimulate  the 
nerves,  and  are  refreshing  after  fatigue  ;  but  if  taken  to 
excess  they  often  produce  nervousness  and  tremour.  Over- 
indulgence in  strong  tea  is  a  frequent  cause  of  palpita- 
tion of  the  heart  and  oppressed  breathing.  Those  who 
make  a  professional  use  of  the  voice  should  remember, 
therefore,  that  moderation,  even  in  these  apparently 
harmless  beverages,  is  required  in  order  to  preserve  the 
integrity  of  the  vocal  organs. 

We  now  come  to  the  all-important  class  of  alcoholic 
driiiks,  the  evil  effects  of  the  abuse  of  which  are  so 
familiar  to  almost  every  one,  that  they  call  for  very 
little  comment,  except  from  the  point  of  view  of  scien- 
tific inquiry.  Taken  in  moderation  by  a  healthy  per- 
son, spirituous  liquors  may  be  considered  as  a  kind  of 
agreeable  stimulus  of  the  nature  of  a  luxury,  which,  if 
seldom  beneficial,  is  still  not  absolutely  harmful.     It  is 

K 


130  THE  HYGIENE   OF   THE    VOICE. 

difficult,  however,  to  determine  the  precise  amount  that 
may  be  consumed  habitually  without  injury,  especially 
as  it  doubtless  varies  according  to  the  fundamental  con- 
stitutional strength  of  each  individual.  From  some 
careful  scientific  observations  Parkes  1  has  concluded 
that  the  average  male  adult  may  take  from  one  to  one- 
and-a-half  fluid  ounces  of  pure  alcohol  daily  without 
any  resultant  injury  to  health.  In  order  to  apply  this 
calculation  practically,  it  is  necessary  to  estimate  the 
percentage  of  alcohol  contained  in  the  different  classes 
of  liquors  commonly  used.  Thus  beer  and  the  weaker 
wines  (clarets)  contain  about  6  per  cent.,  the  stronger 
wines  (port,  sherry,  &c.)  about  15  per  cent.,  and  spiri- 
tuous liquors  (brandy,  whisky,  etc.)  50  or  60  per  cent., 
or  even  more,  of  alcohol.  Hence  we  may  decide  that  a 
man  desiring  strictly  to  avoid  excess  may  drink  in  the 
twenty-four  hours — 

Of  brandy      ...         ...         ...         2|-  ounces.2 

Of  sherry  or  port  (strong  wines)     5         „ 

Of  claret  or  hock  (weak  wines)  10         „ 

Of  beer  ...      ' 20         „ 

For  females  the  above  amounts  should  be  reduced  to 
one-half  or  two-thirds,  on  account  of  the  lessened  power 
of  resistance  of  their  physical  economy.  In  addition  to 
alcohol,  wines  and  beer  contain  a  small  quantity  of 
certain  nutritive  and  tonic  principles,  which  have  an 
invigorating  effect  on  the  constitutiou.      For  general 

1  Op.  cit,  p.  277. 

2  An  ordinary  wine-glass  holds  about  2|  ounces,  a  beer  glass 
about  10  ounces. 


THE  HYGIENE  OF   THE   VOICE.  131 

consumption  or  for  invalids  they  possess,  therefore,  an 
important  advantage  over  the  various  kinds  of  spirits. 

Considered  specially  with  reference  to  the  voice,  too 
much  stress  cannot  be  laid  on  the  warning  against  mak- 
ing too  free  a  use  of  alcoholic  drinks.  '  The  voice,'  as 
Brouc  '  judiciously  observes,  <  is  the  hygrometer  of  so- 
briety.' Alcohol  exerts  a  degenerative  influence  over 
every  organ  and  tissue  of  the  body,  and  nowhere  more 
markedly  than  on  the  mucous  lining  of  the  cavities. 
Here  it  produces  constant  congestion,  which  soon  leads 
to  thickening  of  the  membrane.  In  the  throat  such  a 
condition  is  betrayed  sooner  than  elsewhere,  because  so 
slight  a  physical  alteration  is  sufficient  to  induce  a  per- 
ceptible modification  in  the  delicate  tones  of  the  voice. 
Thus  hoarseness,  at  first  slight,  but  always  steadily  pro- 
gressive, is  one  of  the  earliest  symptoms  that  over- 
indulgence in  alcoholic  beverages  has  commenced  to 
undermine  the  constitution.  And  when  once  unsound- 
ness has  been  induced  in  any  of  the  organs  of  the  body, 
they  lack  the  vigorous  vitality  necessary  to  protect  them 
against  the  exciting  causes  of  disease,  or  to  promote  a 
facile  recovery,  should  they  be  actually  attacked.  Thus 
a  mild  malady,  of  properly  ephemeral  character,  may 
gain  a  firm  footing  and  deepen  into  a  serious  affection, 
through  the  insufficient  potency  of  the  recuperative 
forces  of  the  body.  A  slight  sore-throat,  instead  of 
getting  well  in  a  clay  or  two,  is  likely  to  be  the  pre- 
cursor of  inflammatory  or  ulcerative  lavages  that  may 
permanently  injure  the  voice;  or  an  ordinary  cough, 

1  Hygiene  phUosophigne  des  artistes  dramatigws,  Paris,  lS^G, 
torn.  ii.  p.  109. 

K  2 


132  THE  HYGIENE   OF  THE    VOICE. 

which  seldom  calls  for  other  than  domestic  treatment, 
may  be  the  premonitory  sign  of  an  intense  lung  mis- 
chief, prostrating  in  its  attack,  protracted  in  its  course 
towards  convalescence,  and  the  parent  of  shattered  health 
ever  afterwards. 

It  is  especially  important  to  observe  that  the  ill 
effects  of  intemperance  are  not  necessarily  confined  to 
those  cases  in  which  there  is  frequent  and  positive  ex- 
cess. Oft-repeated,  though  small,  draughts  of  alcohol 
are  in  proportion  as  pernicious  as  large  quantities  taken 
at  longer  intervals,  whilst  in  the  former  case,  as  the 
psychical  influence  of  the  spirit  may  be  scarcely,  if  at 
all,  felt,  the  individual  may  be  wholly  unconscious  of 
running  any  risk.  Hence  the  practice  of  drinking 
many  separate  glasses  of  beer,  stout,  or  wine,  as  a 
support  against  fatigue  and  a  stimulant  to  further  ex- 
ertion, must  be  strongly  condemned.  Such  a  habit 
once  contracted  soon  becomes  a  necessity,  because  every 
period  of  briskness  arising  from  artificial  stimulation  is 
followed  by  a  corresponding  interval  of  depression,  which 
can  only  be  banished  by  resorting  again  to  the  alcoholic 
spring.  Thus  a  state  of  decided,  but  almost  impercep- 
tible, inebriation  is  perpetually  kept  up,  which,  like  an 
insidious  disease,  incessantly  preys  upon  the  life-holds  of 
the  body,  and  presses  on  a  premature  decay  and  death.1 

1  The  fact  that  Grisi  and.  Malibran  had  recourse  to  draughts  of 
stout  whilst  sustaining  their  parts  has  often,  I  have  no  doubt,  been 
regarded  by  other  singers  as  a  precedent  for  doing  likewise.  The 
first-named  artiste  by  keeping  to  a  strict  moderation  appears  to  have 
escaped  without  harm,  but  the  circumstance  should  be  recorded  with 
emphasis  that  the  career  of  Malibran  was  unusually  short,  and  that 
she  died  at  the  early  age  of  twenty-eight.  See  Fetis,  op.  cit.  s.  n. 
The  presumption  is  too  immediate  to  be  passed  over  that  her  consti- 


THE   J I YG I  EXE   OE   THE    VOICE.  133 

II.  Exercise. — Whilst  tlie  greater  portion  of  the 
substance  of  our  body,  the  muscular  system,  exists  for 
the  direct  purpose  of  conferring  the  power  of  voluntary 
motion,  it  is  evident  that  exercise  must  form  an  integral 
and  irremovable  part  of  the  phenomena  that  make  up 
our  life.  For,  in  accordance  with  a  well-ascertained 
law,  no  organs  of  the  animal  body  can  possess  qualities 
which  are  absolutely  purposeless,  but  they  must  perform 
the  functions  for  which  by  their  structure  they  are  de- 
signed, or  else  lose  their  distinctive  characters,  or  dwindle 
to  a  rudimentary  state.  Thus  our  muscles,  through  dis- 
use, become  at  first  soft  and  flaccid,  and  subsequently 
diminish  progressively  in  bulk,  until  partially  or  com- 
pletely atrophied.  Concomitantly,  most  of  the  other 
organs  of  the  body,  including  the  brain  and  nerves, 
undergo,  by  a  parallel  process,  a  similar  change,  be- 
cause their  activity  is,  in  great  part,  the  result,  on 
the  one  side,  of  the  demand  of  the  working  and  thriv- 
ing muscular  system  for  a  regular  supply  of  nutrition 
and  nervous  energy,  and,  on  the  other,  of  the  office  of 
removing  effete  matters  generated  by  exertion.  Hence 
a  sedentary  life  induces  feebleness  of  body  and  may  also 
give  rise  to  apathy  of  mind. 

A  moderate  amount  of  exercise  is,  therefore,  a  vital 
necessity.  To  the  beneficial  effects  of  systematically- 
sustained  muscular  movements  some  reference  has 
already  more  than  once  been  made.  "We  have  seen  the 
value  of  vocal  exercise  directly  on  the  organs  of  voice, 
and  generally  on  the  constitution.    Exercise  should  not, 

tution  succumbed  to  inconsiderate  efforts  to  maintain  an  artificial 
excites 


134  THE   HYGIENE   OF  THE   VOICE. 

however,  be  confined  to  any  particular  part,  if  it  is  de- 
sired to  preserve  a  full  integrity  of  wind  and  limb.  Free 
action  of  all  the  members  should  be  encouraged,  and  in 
no  way  can  this  object  be  better  attained  than  by  walk- 
ing daily  in  the  open  air.  The  motions  called  forth  in 
walking  are  sufficiently  forcible  and  general,  without 
requiring  anything  like  effort — an  error  on  the  side  of 
excess — for  their  performance.  A  daily  walk  of  at  least 
four  or  five  miles  should  be  taken  by  every  person  in 
health.  This  would  be  about  equivalent  to  walking  for 
two  hours,  not  necessarily  consecutive,  at  a  rather  slow 
pace.  And  the  fact  must  not  be  lost  sight  of  that  a 
supply  of  air  as  fresh  and  pure  as  can  be  obtained,  is 
essential  during  exercise,  in  order  that  the  full  advan- 
tage may  be  gained.  For  thus  the  blood,  stimulated  by 
the  exercise  to  a  swifter  course  through  its  vessels,  at- 
tains its  highest  qualities,  and  is  enabled  to  nourish  the 
tissues  most  energetically. 

With  reference  to  special  exercises,  such  as  running, 
rowing,  swimming,  and  the  system  of  operations  that 
make  up  i  training,'  they  are  useful  within  carefully  de- 
fined limits,  both  to  develop  the  vital  forces  of  those 
that  are  naturally  delicate,  and  to  maintain  the  mus- 
cular activity  of  the  more  robust,  at  the  same  time  that 
they  counteract  the  tendency  to  corpulence. 

A  well-regulated  course  of  training,  which  includes 
a  carefully-ordered  diet,  generally  effects  an  increase  of 
breathing  power,  with  a  strengthening  of  the  circulatory 
system,  an  enlargement  of  the  muscles,  and  altogether 
a  state  of  more  vigorous  health.1  If  carried  to  excess, 
1  See  Maclaren,  Training  in  Theory  and  Practice,  1874. 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE   VOICE.  135 

however,  such  ;i  course  maybe  injurious,  and  it  is,  more- 
over, uncertain  whether  in  any  case  the  advantages  de- 
rived  are  permanent.  For  if  the  exercise  is  not  kept 
up,  the  body  soon  readapta  itself  to  the  ordinary  mode 
of  life,  and  returns  to  its  former  condition.  The  best 
rule  to  be  adopted,  is  that  each  person  should  take  as 
much  exercise  as  appears  best  suited  to  his  normal 
physical  development.  Thus  the  delicate  may  restrict 
themselves  to  exertion,  gentle,  but  sufficiently  pro- 
longed, such  as  walking,  whilst  the  vigorous  should 
have  recourse  to  more  decided  muscular  efforts,  such 
as  feats  of  a  gymnastic  character. 

It  is  worth  while  to  notice  here  a  peculiar  bearing 
of  general  bodily  motion  on  the  artistic  use  of  the  voice. 
This  relates  to  the  familiar  circumstance  of  being  out 
of  breath  after  making  any  unusual  exertion — a  condi- 
tion which  is  the  direct  consequence  of  the  quickened 
flow  of  blood  through  the  lungs,  and  the  increased  re- 
spiratory action  thereby  occasioned.  At  such  a  time 
singing,  or  speaking  with  the  measured  delivery  of 
rhetoric  would,  of  course,  be  impossible.  On  this  ac- 
count, care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  all  superfluous 
movement,  whilst  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  sustained 
use  of  the  voice,  for,  otherwise,  fatigue  of  the  vocal 
organs  is  likely  to  arrive  rapidly  through  interference  of 
hurried  breathing  with  phonation.  This  remark  applies 
particularly  to  the  orator,  as.  during  histrionic  singing 
or  dramatic  declamation,  there  are  always  intervals  of 
rest  sufficiently  Long  and  frequent.  The  speaker  should, 
therefore,  as  Becquerel  observes,  avoid  energetic  con- 
tractions of  the  muscles  of  the  lower  limbs  and  trunk, 


136  THE  HYGIENE   OF  THE    VOICE. 

and  make  free  use  only  of  the  arms  and  shoulders,  in 
order  to  confer  the  requisite  animation  and  expression 
on  his  utterances. 

III.  Care  of  the  Skin. — The  skin  does  not  form 
merely  a  covering  for  the  body,  but  it  also  has  impor- 
tant functions  to  perform,  which  afford  an  indispensable 
aid  in  maintaining  the  health  of  the  organisation.  For 
this  purpose  it  contains  in  its  thickness  an  almost  count- 
less number  of  minute  glands,  each  of  which  opens  by  a 
microscopic  orifice  on  its  surface  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
charging its  proper  secretion.1  These  glands  are  of 
two  kinds,  termed  respectively  sudoriparous,  or  per- 
spiratory, and  sebaceous,  or  oil -elaborating.  The  per- 
spiratory glands  purify  the  blood  by  removing  from  it 
effete  matters,  which  they  discharge,  dissolved  in  water, 
on  the  surface  of  the  skin.  The  water  evaporates  at  a 
rapidity  proportionate  to  the  degree  of  heat  of  the  ex- 
ternal air,  and  thus  regulates  the  temperature  of  the 
body,  keeping  it  cool  in  warm  weather  or  during  exer- 
cise, when  it  exudes  in  greatest  quantity.  The  solid 
portion  of  the  perspiration,  consisting  of  organic  and 
mineral  matters,  remains  and  collects  on  the  skin,  and 
if  not  removed  by  some  means,  interferes  with  the  con- 

1  Each  gland  consists  of  a  fine  convoluted  tube  about  J  inch  long, 
and  the  average  number  of  pores  marking  their  openings  in  a  square 
inch  of  skin  is  computed  at  2,800.  The  area  of  the  surface  of  the 
body  in  a  man  of  ordinary  stature  is  about  2,500  square  inches,  and 
hence  the  total  number  of  pores  may  be  reckoned  at  7,000,000.  As 
to  each  pore  corresponds  a  gland,  we  should  thus  have  1,750,000 
inches  of  tubing,  equal  to  145,833  feet,  or  48,611  yards,  or  nearly 
twenty-eight  miles. 


THE  HYGIENE  OE  THE    VOICE,  1 37 

tinuance  of  its  action.  The  sebaceous  glands  Lubricate 
the  skin,  so  as  to  prevent  its  becoming  dry  and  cracked, 
and  on  this  account  they  are  especially  numerous  in  na- 
tives  of  tropical  climates.  A  further  function  of  the  skin, 
of  the  highest  moment,  is  the  oxygenation  of,  and  removal 
of  carbonic  acid  from,  the  blood,  as  it  circulates  through 
the  capillary  vessels  near  the  exterior  of  the  body. 

Thus,  it  may  be  seen  that  the  office  of  the  skin  is, 
to  a  great  extent,  similar  to  that  of  the  lungs,  and,  there- 
fore, there  exists  a  cutaneous  as  well  as  a  pulmonary 
respiration.  And  should  the  eliminative  action  of  the 
skin  be  interrupted,  it  follows  that  the  lungs  would  be 
called  on  to  perform  an  increased  amount  of  duty, 
which  would  be  likely  to  provoke  hurried  and  difficult 
breathing.  At  the  same  time  the  accumulation  of  the 
solid  effete  matters  in  the  blood  would  necessitate  an 
inordinate  activity  of  other  internal  organs,  especially 
the  kidneys,  and  a  general  constitutional  disturbance 
would  arise.  Should  the  function  of  the  skin  be  com- 
pletely suspended,  as  would  occur  if  it  were  coated  with 
some  impermeable  substance,  such  as  varnish,  death 
would  supervene  in  a  few  hours,  with  symptoms  resem- 
bling those  of  suffocation — a  fact  which  has  been  ascer- 
tained by  some  experiments  that  have  been  made  on 
animals. 

From  the  above  observations  it  is  easy  to  perceive 
the  general  importance  of  keeping  the  skin  in  a  healthy 
state,  as  well  as  the  direct  influence  that  its  derange- 
ment may  exert  over  the  soundness  of  the  vocal  powers. 
Attention  to  the  health  of  the  skin  comprises  the  judi- 
cious employment  of  clulluny,  ablution*,  and  cosmetics. 


138  THE  HYGIENE   OF   THE   VOICE. 

1.  Clothing.  —The  variable  temperature  of  the  at- 
mosphere, arising  from  circumstances  of  climate,  season, 
and  habitation,  necessitates  the  use  of  apparel,  in  order 
to  obtain  an  equilibrium  of  the  external  influences  which 
tend  at  one  time  to  overheat,  and  at  another  to  chill, 
injuriously  the  surface  of  the  body.  In  order  to  carry 
out  this  indication  most  economically,  regard  must  be 
paid  to  the  quantity,  the  quality,  and  the  colour  of  the 
clothing  employed.  Thus  the  heat  of  the  body  is  better 
preserved  in  proportion  to  the  thickness  of  the  garments 
worn ;  but  their  power  in  this  way  also  depends  very 
much  on  the  material  of  which  they  are  made.  Th& 
principal  substances  used  in  the  manufacture  of  clothes 
are  linen,  silk,  cotton,  and  wool. 

Linen  is  composed  of  fine,  hard  fibres,  which  conduct 
heat  with  comparative  rapidity.  Clothes  made  of  linen 
are  therefore  cool  and  suitable  for  warm  weather. 

Silken  fabrics  are  also  cool,  but  still  form  a  warmer 
covering  than  linen. 

Cotton  materials  are  much  warmer,  and  softer  to  the 
touch,  than  either  linen  or  silk. 

Wool  conducts  heat  most  slowly  of  all  the  substances 
which  enter  into  the  composition  of  clothing,  and  as  a 
covering  to  the  skin,  thus  causes,  to  a  maximum  degree, 
the  retention  of  the  animal  heat  evolved  by  the  vital 
activities.  Woollen  garments  are,  therefore,  the  most 
suitable  for  cold  climates.  They  are  also  especially 
valuable  and  protective  against  taking  cold  when  per- 
sons are  obliged  to  experience  sudden  transitions  of 
temperature,  either  through  dwelling  in  changeable  cli- 
mates, such  as  our  own,  or  by  reason  of  their  occupation 


THE  HYGIENE   OF  THE    VOICE.  139 

compelling  them  to  emerge  frequently  from  heated  rooms 
or  halls  into  a  comparatively  colder  external  air.  Under 
these  circumstances,  flannel  should  be  worn  habitually 
as  underclothing.  This  rule  applies  very  forcibly  to 
dramatic  artists,  who  arc  often  obliged  to  wear  light 
or  heavy  clothing  on  the  stage,  irrespective  of  the  ac- 
tual exigencies  of  temperature.  A  further  important 
property  of  wool  is  to  condense  and  absorb  perspiration. 
For  this  reason  it  is  valuable  as  a  covering  when  rest  is 
taken  immediately  after  exercise,  as  it  prevents  the  body 
cooling  too  rapidly  by  continued  evaporation.  The  ap- 
plication of  this  fact  would,  of  course,  not  need  to  be 
observed  in  hot  and  calm  weather. 

As  regards  colour,  it  need  only  be  mentioned  that 
white  fabrics  resist  much  longer  than  dark  materials  the 
passage  through  them  of  heat  rays  from  refulgent  bodies. 
They  should  generally,  therefore,  form  the  outer  attire 
of  persons  when  exposed  to  the  glare  of  the  sun  in  hot 
seasons  or  climates. 

The  evils  of  insufficient  clothing  to  maintain  the 
skin  at  a  normal  temperature  are  very  marked,  and  are 
manifested  by  enervation,  depression,  and  general  slug- 
gishness of  the  vital  functions.  Such  a  condition  is  the 
result  of  impoverishment  and  defective  nutrition  of  the 
various  structures  near  the  surface  of  the  body,  owing 
to  the  proper  supply  of  blood  being  kept  out  of  them 
by  the  constringent  action  on  the  peripheral  capillaries 
of  the  persistent  cold.  At  the  same  time,  the  internal 
organs  also  suffer  from  being  passively  congested  by  an 
excess  of  blood,  which  is  driven  inwards  instead  of  being 
distributed  equally  throughout  the  whole  circulatory  bj   - 


140  THE  HYGIENE   OF  THE    VOICE. 

tern.  In  such  case,  if  disease  is  not  directly  produced, 
the  constitution  is  enfeebled,  and  laid  unusually  open  to 
the  numerous  exciting  causes  of  maladies  to  which  we 
are  perpetually  exposed.  Hence  the  fallacy  becomes 
palpable  of  wearing  insufficient  clothing  under  the  im- 
pression that  the  constitution  can  thereby  be  rendered 
more  hardy  and  vigorous.  The  dress  should  be  care- 
fully adapted  to  every  variation  of  indoor  and  outdoor 
temperature,  and  also  to  periods  of  exercise  and  repose. 
The  skin  should  be  invariably  kept  comfortably  warm, 
but  at  the  same  time,  the  error  of  excessive  wrapping 
up  should  be  avoided.  In  the  latter  case,  indeed,  a 
delicacy  or  exaggerated  susceptibility  of  the  surface  to 
slight  thermometrical  changes  may  be  engendered,  which 
may  be  a  constant  source  of  mild  catarrhal  affections, 
the  forerunners,  possibly,  of  serious  inflammatory  at- 
tacks in  the  throat  or  lungs. 

As  a  protection  against  sharp  winds,  the  best  clothing 
is  something  wholly  impervious,  such  as  waterproof  cloth, 
or  leather  in  the  form  of  strong  skins  with  or  without 
fur.  The  objection  to  this  class  of  garments  is  that  they 
prevent  the  evaporation  of  the  perspiration,  and  the  body 
thus  remains  in  a  state  of  continual  dampness.  For  this 
reason  they  should  generally  be  dispensed  with  during 
exercise,  unless  required  to  keep  out  rain. 

With  respect  to  the  corset,  enough  has  already  been 
said  in  order  to  show  how  detrimental  its  improper  use 
may  be  to  the  free  play  of  the  chest,  and  consequently 
to  the  artistic  employment  of  the  voice.1    As  a  covering 

1  See  page  77. 


THE  HYGIENE  OF   THE   VOICE.  141 

for  the  skin,  its  place  could  easily  be  supplied  by  any 
looser  vestment  of  similar  substance. 

Whilst  alluding  to  tight  articles  of  female  apparel, 
a  word  of  warning  may  be  spoken  against  the  wearing 
of  rigid  and  narrow  cravats  amongst  the  male  sex.  A 
dangerous  compression  of  the  superficial  blood-vessels  of 
the  neck,  causing  congestion  of  the  brain  or  even  fatal 
apoplexy,  has  not  unfrequently  been  laid  to  the  charge 
of  a  neckerchief  drawn  so  tight  as  to  become  an  unin- 
tentional instrument  of  strangulation. 

2.  Ablutions  (Baths). — The  systematic  cleansing  of 
the  skin,  which  is  carried  out  even  by  many  of  the  lower 
animals  through  an  impulse  of  instinct,  is  in  man  both 
a  social  and  a  sanitary  necessity.  The  products  of  per- 
spiration, as  well  as  any  foreign  matters  derived  from 
the  dust  of  the  atmosphere,  which  tend  to  accumulate 
on  the  skin,  are  thereby  removed,  and  the  pores  are 
opened  so  as  to  allow  the  various  sets  of  glandules  to 
carry  on  unhindered  their  office  of  excretion.  The 
universal  detergent  is  water,  which  is  applied  most 
effectively  to  the  surface  of  the  body  in  the  form  of  a 
bath.  Water  baths  are  of  various  kinds,  and  differ 
either  in  temperature  or  by  holding  in  solution  some 
mineral  substance,  wherefore  they  may  have  other  hy- 
gienic actions  besides  their  cleansing  properties. 

Pure  water  baths  may  be  cold,  tepid,  or  warm. 

The  cold  bath,  generally  at  about  60°  Fahr.,  has  a 
tonic  and  stimulating  effect  on  the  skin  and  constitu- 
tion of  persons  in  ordinary  health.  It  causes  the  blood 
to  rush  inwards  momentarily,  whence,  however,  it  is  soon 


142  THE  HYGIENE   OF  THE   VOICE. 

again  driven  outwards  if  the  circulatory  apparatus  is 
moderately  vigorous.  A  comfortable  glow  of  the  sur- 
face is  then  felt,  which  is  termed  'reaction.'  This  re- 
action is  the  index  to  the  benefit  derived  from  the  bath, 
and  the  skin  is  thereby  stimulated  to  a  more  energetic 
performance  of  its  functions.  On  the  contrary,  should 
it  not  occur,  the  skin  remains  pale  and  cold,  whilst  the 
internal  organs  are  injuriously  congested,  especially  the 
lungs,  and  there  is  evidence  that  the  cold  bath  is  harm- 
ful. On  such  an  event  the  reaction  should  be  encour- 
aged by  friction  of  the  surface  with  a  rough  towel  or 
with  flesh  gloves,  but  the  bather  should  in  future  re- 
frain from  the  use  of  a  decidedly  cold  bath.  It  must 
also  be  observed  that  in  no  case  should  the  cold  bath  be 
taken  when  the  skin  is  cold,  as  there  is  then  hardly  any 
possibility  of  provoking  a  reaction,  and  injury  may  even 
result  from  increasing  the  already  existing  congestion  of 
internal  organs.  Moreover,  it  is  a  standard  rule  not  to 
bathe  after  a  meal,  as  a  disturbance  of  the  circulation 
is  then  inadmissible. 

The  tepid  bath,  at  about  90°  Fahr.,  has  no  particular 
effect  on  the  circulation,  and  is,  therefore,  suitable  for 
delicate  persons  who  merely  desire  to  fulfil  the  duty  of 
washing. 

The  warm  bath,  100°  to  120°  Fahr.,  determines  a 
flow  of  blood  to  the  surface  of  the  body  and  increases 
the  cutaneous  action.  At  the  same  time  it  relaxes  all 
the  muscular  structures  and  renders  the  flow  of  the 
blood  through  its  channels  more  laboured — a  tendency 
which  is  met  by  greater  contractile  efforts  of  the  heart, 
whence  arises  a  quickened  respiration.   The  warm  bath, 


THE   HYGIENE   OF   THE    VOICE.  143 

when  short,  supplies  a  salutary  stimulus  and  alterative 
to  the  vital  activities,  hut  if  indulged  in  too  long  or  too 
often  has  a  debilitating  influence  on  the  Bystem  which 
loses  in  tone  on  account  of  the  excessive  or  repeated 
relaxations.  After  a  warm  hath  the  bather  should  re- 
main at  rest  and  well  covered  for  a  short  time  until  the 
circulation  has  regained  its  normal  course. 

Of  mineral  baths,  cold  sea-water  need  only  he  men- 
tioned here.  Sea-bathing  has  always  been  considered 
tonic  and  invigorating;  the  motion  of  the  water,  the 
exercise  taken  whilst  immersed  in  it,  the  stimulating- 
atmosphere,  and  possibly  the  absorption  by  the  skin  of 
some  of  the  mineral  salts  held  in  solution,  combine 
to  exert  a  peculiarly  beneficial  action  on  the  system. 
Must  persons  can  generally,  therefore,  bathe  in  the  sea 
with  marked  advantage,  except  the  very  delicate  and 
timid. 

Another  class  of  baths  deserves  a  short  notice,  viz., 
the  dry  hot-air  hath  and  the  Turkish  bath,  of  which  it 
is  the  chief  part.  By  the  dry  and  hot  air  the  glands  of 
the  skin  are  solicited  to  a  very  energetic  action,  and 
they  respond  by  a  copious  flow  of  perspiration.  A  puri- 
fying effect  on  the  blood  is  thus  obtained,  which  is  often 
highly  salutary  in  the  robust,  especially  if  there  be  an 
inclination  to  corpulence.  In  the  Turkish  bath  the 
perspiration  is  checked  by  a  cold-water  douche,  and  a 
reaction  is  then  brought  about  by  friction,  shampooing, 
etc.  These  baths  should,  however,  be  taken  with  caution, 
as  they  are  too  powerful  to  be  advisable  in  all  cases.  As 
a  rule,  they  should  never  be  persevered  in  without  a 
medical  recommendation. 


144  THE  HYGIENE   OF  THE   VOICE. 

3.  Cosmetics. — The  chief  of  cosmetics  is  soap,  a 
combination  of  oil  and  alkali,  which  is  indispensable 
to  every  toilet  on  account  of  its  solvent  power  over  all 
foreign  matters  that  may  coat  the  skin.  It  may  be 
made  more  agreeable  to  the  sense  of  sight  and  smell 
by  clarification  and  admixture  with  various  odoriferous 
oils  or  balsams,  but  beyond  this  there  is  usually  but 
little  choice  to  be  exerted  in  the  selection  of  so  uni- 
versal a  commodity.  The  simplicity  and  cheapness  of  the 
articles  that  enter  into  its  composition  generally  ensure 
a  sufficient  purity.  Certain  medicated  soaps,  containing 
tar,  carbolic  acid,  sulphur,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used,  but 
are  unnecessary  unless  when  there  is  some  structural 
disease  of  the  skin,  for  the  relief  of  which  the  special 
ingredient  is  intrinsically  suited. 

This  term  also  includes  the  various  applications  used 
for  the  skin,  such  as  violet-powder,  rouge,  hair-oils, 
various  lotions  for  the  complexion,  eau-de-Cologne,  etc., 
which  are  employed  mostly  about  the  face  only  for  the 
sake  of  appearance.  Such  substances  should  always 
be  used  guardedly,  unless  their  precise  composition  is 
known,  as  they  are  sometimes  compounded  with  poison- 
ous drugs,  notably  lead  and  arsenic,  which  may  act  per- 
niciously both  locally  and  generally. 

IV.  Climatic  Influences. — The  hygienic  estimation 
of  climate  resolves  itself  almost  entirely  into  a  con- 
sideration of  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  in  different 
parts  of  the  earth,  as  to  temperature,  humidity,  density, 
movement,  and  any  foreign  element  that  may  permeate 
it,  such  as  marsh  miasma.    The  action  of  the  air  on  the 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  VOh  145 

health  of  the  body  is  determined  by  the  degree  in  which 
it  possesses  these  qualities,  which  spring  from  terrestrial 
and  solar  influences.1 

1.  Hot  Climates. — In  excessively  hot  weather  (80° 
to  90°  Fahr.,  or  higher),  if  the  air  is  dry,  the  skin  is 
stimulated  to  provide  a  large  quantity  of  perspiration, 
and  the  body  is  kept  cool  by  rapid  evaporation.  At  the 
same  time  respiration  is  quickened  because  the  rarefied 
air  contains  less  oxygen,  and  a  larger  supply  of  it  is 
therefore  required  for  breathing  purposes.  The  increased 
rush  of  the  dry  air  through  the  vocal  channels  tends  to 
parch  the  mucous  membrane — an  effect  which  may  de- 
teriorate the  quality  of  the  voice.  Moreover,  the  heat 
relaxes  the  muscular  system,  so  as  to  reduce  the  apti- 
tude for  exertion.  Under  these  conditions,  therefore, 
the  voice  may  lose  in  power  and  purity. 

Should  the  air  be  unusually  moist,  although  the 
parching  effect  is  not  present,  the  heat  is  more  than 

1  Meliot  conceives  that  climate  exerts  a  peculiar  influence  over 
voice.  He  states  that  in  hot  countries  there  are  liner  voices  than 
in  cold  regions,  and  thai  high  voices  are  also  more  common  there 
than  deep  voices.  Tims  in  Italy  more  tenors  than  basses  are  found, 
and  in  Germany  more  basses  than  tenors.  In  France  Picardy  fur- 
nishes most  bass  voices.  Languedoc  and  especially  Toulouse  and 
its  environs  are  celebrated  for  tenor  voices.  Burgundy  and  Franche- 
Comte"  (Jura,  Doubs,  and  Haute- Sa3ne)  supply  most  female  voices. 
— La  musique  exphquSe  aua  gent  <lu  monde,  Paris,  1SC7  (quoted  by 
Mandl,  VraitS pratique,  etc.,  L872,  p.  294.)  History,  however,  appears 
to  indicate  that  musical  gifts  of  voice  are  rather  phylogenetic  in 
their  origin.  Tim-  [taly,  so  prolific  in  our  own  times  with  Gne  singers, 
was  nut  remarkable  in  the  same  manner  in  the  age  of  the  Romans; 
seemingly,  indeed,  the  reverse.  And  in  the  classical  period  (Jrcecc 
and  Asia  Minor,  winch  do  not  now  produce  singers  of  Bote,  probably 
fuxniihed  the  must  esteemed  vocalists. 


146  THE  HYGIENE   OF   THE  VOICE. 

ever  depressing,  because  the  normal  temperature  of  the 
body  cannot  be  preserved  by  perspiratory  evaporation. 

When  wind  is  present  it  facilitates  evaporation.  It 
therefore  increases  the  molestation  if  the  air  be  already 
too  hot  and  dry,  but  lessens  the  evil  of  humidity  with 
elevation  of  temperature. 

It  is  only  in  hot  weather  that  marsh  miasmata  are 
potent  for  harm.  They  arise  from  low-lying-  tracts  of 
land  covered  with  decaying  vegetable  matter,  but  cannot 
emanate  so  as  to  pervade  the  general  atmosphere,  unless 
aided  by  a  temperature  above  60°  Fahr.  They  engender 
the  class  of  fevers  called  intermittent  or  agues,  and  in 
thus  disturbing  the  animal  economy  interfere,  of  course, 
with  the  artistic  exercise  of  the  voice.  These  noisome 
exhalations  consist  of  heavy  gases  which  hug  the  ground, 
being  unable  to  ascend  into  the  higher  regions  of  the 
air.  On  this  account  they  can  be  avoided  by  living  up 
hills,1  should  there  be  any,  in  the  infected  districts. 

In  hot  climates  the  vicinity  of  the  sea- coast  is  gene- 
rally more  healthful  than  the  inland  districts.  The 
marine  air  has  stimulating  and  tonic  properties  owing  to 
its  being  impregnated  with  iodine,  bromine,  and  various 
saline  principles.  It  contains  the  largest  amount  of  oxy- 
gen, allowing  for  temperature,  because  it  has  the  greatest 
density ;  for  the  sea-level  being  the  lowest,  atmospheric 
pressure  is  there  at  its  maximum.  Its  humidity  is 
generally  of  an  average  measure  according  to  the  tem- 
perature, whilst  miasmata,  in  infected  localities,  are 

1  The  height,  however,  at  which  safety  is  obtained  varies  in  dif  * 
erent  parts  of  the  world.     400  ft.  may  suffice,  but  it  may  be  neces° 
y  to  ascend  2,000  ft.     iSee  Parkes,  op.  cit.  p.  41 1 , 


THE  HYGIENE   OF  THE  VOICE.  147 

Lessened  on  the  shore  and  absent  on  the  water  at  a  short 
distance  from  it.     The  sea-side  is,  therefore,  a  valuable 

and  ready  refuge  against  many  of  the  evils  encountered 
iu  tropical  climates. 

2.  Cold  Climates. — Very  cold  weather  (25°  to  40° 
Kalir.),  if  the  air  is  dry,  is  invigorating.  It  renders  the 
function  of  the  lungs  more  active,  in  order  that  a  greater 
amount  of  animal  heat  may  he  evolved,  with  the  object 
of  preserving  the  normal  degree  of  temperature.  But 
the  breathing  is  not  consequently  hurried  or  oppressed, 
because  the  cold  air,  being  condensed,  contains  a  com- 
paratively large  quantity  of  oxygen.  The  dryness  of 
the  atmosphere  creates  little  tendency  to  parching  of 
tin'  air-passages,  because  it  is  counterbalanced  by  the 
cold  which  checks  evaporation.  On  the  whole,  there- 
fore, a  cold,  dry  climate  is  favourable  to  vocal  exercise, 
or  at  least  is  not  injurious  to  the  integrity  of  the  voice. 

The  combination  of  cold  and  damp  is  notorious  for 
its  pernicious  influence  on  health,  though  why  it  should 
>Mi  ^o  injuriously  is  not  quite  certain.  It  may  be  taken 
tor  granted,  however,  that  the  exhalation  of  watery 
vapour,  by  the  skin  or  lungs,  or  by  both,  is  a  vital 
necessity;  probably  because  the  water  holds  in  solution 
certain  foetid  organic  matters  which  exert  a  poisonous 
effect  nn  the  system,  and  which  cannot  be  otherwise 
removed.1  In  cold  and  damp  air  we  have  the  conjunction 
of  the  two  atmospheric  conditions  most  potent  in  their 
antagonism  to  evaporation.  In  such  case  little  or  no 
aqueous  vapour  can  be  given  off  by  the  cutaneous  or 
1  S«q  Parkes,  op.  eit.  p.  us. 


148  THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE-  VOICE. 

pulmonary  surfaces ;  and  the  foetid  organic  matters, 
therefore,  accumulate  in  the  blood  and  tissues,  tending 
to  originate  disease,  mostly  of  a  rheumatic  character. 
But  cold  and  damp  also  greatly  exaggerate  the  liability 
to  congestion  of  internal  organs,  and  are  prolific  gene- 
rators of  inflammatory  affections  of  the  air-passages, 
such  as  quinsy,  laryngitis,  bronchitis,  etc. 

Fogs  generally  occur  in  cold,  often  in  frosty,  weather. 
They  consist  of  molecules  of  water,  which  float  about, 
suspended  in  the  air.  They  are  evidence  of  excessive 
dampness,  and  they  are  also  particularly  noxious  in  cities, 
as  they  there  entangle  and  fix  fuliginous  or  sooty  par- 
ticles in  the  stratum  of  air  near  the  earth.  The  effect 
is,  that  persons  involved  in  such  fogs  are  obliged  to  in- 
hale damp  smoke,  which  has  an  irritating  action  on  the 
air-passages.  In  foggy  weather  it  will  generally  be  found 
that  the  nasal  discharges  and  expectorated  matters  have 
a  blackened  appearance. 

It  has  been  asserted  that  the  gravity  of  the  voice  is 
increased  in  a  cold  and  humid  atmosphere,1  but  the 
statement  needs  proof.  Ketention  of  moisture  in  or 
about  the  vibrating  portion  of  the  vocal  apparatus 
might,  indeed,  by  increasing  the  density  of  the  vocal 

1  The  following  incident  would  appear  scarcely  credible  did  it 
not  rest  on  a  high  authority.  "When  Grassini  came  to  England  the 
hygrometric  influence  of  the  climate  caused  her  voice  to  descend  in 
pitch  by  an  octave.  Its  quality  was  not,  however,  deteriorated  by 
this  curious  change  ;  on  the  contrary,  she  had  a  great  success  in  her 
lyric  achievements  until,  by  her  becoming  accustomed  to  the  climate, 
her  voice  regained  its  normal  compass.  She  then  actually  lost  her 
popularity  here,  though  her  vocal  powers  had  returned  to  the  condi- 
tion to  which  she  previously  owed  her  fame. 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  VOICE.  149 

bands,  lower  their  tones.  Singers  certainly  feel  the 
effect  of  chill  and  damp  weather,  and  are  then  seldom 
in  good  voice. 

Persons  who  are  obliged  to  he  out  of  doors  in  chilly 
and  moist  weather  should  he  especially  careful  to  breat  he 
through  the  nose,  as  the  air,  being  thus  considerably 
warmed,  will  be  enabled  to  carry  off  more  watery  vapour 
from  the  lungs.  The  mucous  lining  of  the  throat  is  also 
thus  guarded  from  the  ill  effects  of  the  cold.  Should 
breathing  through  the  nose  be  difficult  from  any  cause, 
a  respirator  should  be  worn.  This  instrument  is  worn 
over  the  mouth,  in  order  to  warm  the  air  and  catch  any 
particles  of  dust  during  inspiration.  It  supplies, in  fact, 
the  place  of  the  nasal  channels  for  those  who  are 
obliged  to  breathe  through  the  mouth. 

The  action  of  wind  in  dry,  cold  weather  is  to  cause 
the  cold  to  be  disagreeably  felt.  A  cold,  but  dry  climate 
is  usually,  indeed,  well  tolerated  or  even  pleasant,  when 
a  uniform  calmness  of  the  air  is  the  prevailing  condi- 
tion. In  chilly,  damp  weather  a  brisk  movement  of  the 
air  increases  the  evaporation,  but,  in  doing  so,  also  aug- 
ments the  cold,  which  is  then  most  painfully  felt. 
Although  winds  are  often  favourable  in  maintaining 
atmospheric  purity,  and  will  dispel  fogs,  it  seems  that, 
on  the  whole,  in  decidedly  cold  weather,  their  influence 
is  not  precisely  hygienic. 

The  sea-air,  even  in  cold  climates,  retains  its  tonic 
properties.  Its  humidity  on  or  near  the  shore  is  gene- 
rally uniform,  as  far  as  terrestrial  influences  are  con- 
cerned, because  the  soil  in  the  vicinity  of  the  ocean  is 
usually  of  a  sandy  nature. 


150  THE  HYGIENE  OF   THE  VOICE. 

3.  Temperate  Climates. — The  characteristic  of  most 
temperate  climates  is  their  variability ;  for,  whilst  their 
summer  may  be  almost  tropical,  their  winter  is  not 
unfrequently  of  polar  severity.  And  the  junction  of 
these  two  extremes  is  not  affected  by  insensible  grada- 
tion, so  as  to  amalgamate  the  seasons  imperceptibly ; 
but  sudden  changes  of  temperature  to  the  extent  of  20° 
or  30°  Fahr.  may  occur  in  the  course  of  a  single  day. 
At  one  time  dryness,  and  at  another  humidity,  of  the 
air,  may  be  present  to  a  marked  degree.  This  muta- 
bility is  chiefly  due  to  the  action  of  winds,  which,  if 
they  come  from  the  north,  have  no  opportunity  to 
become  heated ;  or,  if  from  the  south,  are  not  exposed 
to  any  cooling  influences  before  reaching  the  temperate 
zone. 

The  hygienic  qualities  of  temperate  climates  are  in 
direct  relation  with  their  variability,  and  the  rapid 
transitions  from  heat  to  cold  are  especially  inducive  of 
catarrhal  and  inflammatory  maladies,  such  as  usually 
result  from  taking  cold.  Diseases  of  the  throat  are, 
therefore,  frequent,  and  the  inhabitants  have  some  diffi- 
culty in  preserving  the  purity  of  voice  required  for  its 
professional  use.  On  this  account  they  are  obliged  to 
be  particularly  careful  in  adapting  their  clothing  to  the 
manifold  emergencies  of  weather. 

Notwithstanding  these  circumstances,  it  is  in  the 
temperate  zone  that  some  of  the  most  agreeable  and 
salubrious  districts  for  dwelling  in  may  be  found.  For,  as 
the  solar  influences,  if  undisturbed,  would  generally  con- 
fer a  well-poised  mean  of  temperature,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  neutralise  the  action  of  the  winds  in  order  to  obtain  a 


THE  II )  'Gil  NE  i  >r  THE  1  '<  >JCE.  i  5 1 

stable  climate  free  from  hurtful  extremes.  This  require- 
ment is  effected  in  many  localities  on  the  Bouth  <•■ 

of  temperate  lands,  such  as  Torquay,  the  Riviera,  Sail 
Francisco,  etc.,  where  a  mountainous  chain  Intercepts 
the  northern  blasts,  whilst  the  marine  evaporation  cools 
the  sultry  air  blowing  from  the  south.     Such  are  the 

localities  which  are  best  adapted  for  the  residence  of 
invalids,  as  the  constitution  is  not  disturbed  by  the 
necessity  of  perpetually  readapting  itself  to  altered 
conditions  of  climate,  whilst  the  weather  is  so  equable 
as  seldom  or  never  to  debar  the  taking  of  outdoor 
exercise.  Life  in  the  open  air  is,  indeed,  the  most 
potent  reinvigorator  of  those  afflicted  with  consump- 
tive tendencies. 

4.  Mountain  Air. — The  air  of  mountains  or  ele- 
vated plateaus  has  a  favourable  effect  on  the  health  of  the 
animal  economy,  either  from  its  purity  or  from  its  light- 
ness. As  the  atmosphere  is  considerably  attenuated  on 
account  of  the  altitude,  it  contains  less  oxygen,  and 
consequently  the  breathing  is  hastened  and  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood  accelerated.  This  change  is  salutary, 
and  not  attended  with  any  sensation  of  pulmonary 
oppression,  because  the  diminution  of  the  atmospheric 
pressure  on  the  surface  of  the  body  and  the  lessened 
force  of  gravitation  facilitate  exercise  and  increase  the 
activity  of  the  limbs.  In  hot  climates  the  mountain  air 
has  also  the  advantage  of  being  cool,1  whilst  in  cold 
regions  it  is  beneficial  on  account  of  its  dryness.     Life 

1  The  decline  of  temperature  according  as  we  ascend  may  be 
roughly  estimated  al  1    Fahr.  for  every  300  Et.  "!'  elevation, 


152  THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  VOICE. 

on  the  slopes  of  a  mountain,  at  a  height  of  from  3,000 
to  7,000  feet,  is  now  considered  as  an  eminently  cura- 
tive agent  in  the  treatment  of  many  debilitating 
diseases,  especially  scrofula  and  consumption.1  In  cases 
of  mild  constitutional  depression,  such  as  continued 
fatigue  from  overwork,  when  a  change  of  air  is  required, 
no  better  choice  could  be  made  than  of  residence  for  a 
few  weeks  in  a  temperate  and  elevated  situation  amongst 
the  hills. 

1  See  Weber,  Climate  of  the  Swiss  Alps,  18G4. 


index  to  sumi-rrs. 


ABD 

AunoMiXAL  breathing,  38,  77 
Ablutions,  I  1 1 

Abuse  of  voice,  maladies  from, 
104,  106 

Activity,  direct  results  of  mus- 
cular, 100 
Age,  relations  of,  with  voice,  133 
Air  chamber,  37 

—  damp,  145 

—  fixed,  40 

—  foggy,  H8 

—  impurities  in,  107 

—  marsh  or  miasmatic,  116 

—  mountain.  1  "1 

—  residual,  40 

—  sea,  149 

—  tidal,  39 

—  where  most  dense,  1  16 
Alcohol,  ill  effects  of,  on  voice, 

L31 
Alimentation.  120,  124 
Altitudes,  air  in  high,  2,  151 
Alto  voice,  56,  58 
Articulation.  61.  100,  106 

—  of  consonants,  67,  93 

—  of  vowels,  6:*,  89,  92 
Arytenoid  cartilages,  29,  43,  44, 

45,  16 

Bands,  vocal,  30,40,42,  82,84,86 
bread!  b  of,  31 

—  ventricular,  31,  32 
Banting's  system  for  the  reduc- 
tion of  corpulence,  126,  127 


CAB 

Baritone  voice,  56 
Bass  voice,  56 
Baths,  141 

—  cold,  141 

—  dry  hot-air,  143 

—  medicated,  144 

—  sea,  143 

—  tepid,  142 

—  Turkish,  143 

—  warm,  1  12 
Beer,  113,  132 

Break  of  voice  at  age  of  puhert  v, 
59 

Breath,  holding  the,  77 

Breathing,  abdominal  or  dia- 
phragmatic, 38,  77 

—  by  the  skin,  146 

—  clavicular,  39,  76,  78 

—  costal  or  rib,  38,  77 

—  exercises  for  development  of, 
77 

—  management  of,  during  vocal 
exercise,  81 

—  mode  of,  76 
Bronchial  tubes,  27 

Cabtilages  of  the  larynx,  28 

—  arytenoid,  28,  29,  16 

—  cricoid,  l".»,  16 

—  epiglottis,  29,  36 

—  of  Santorini,  30 

—  of  Wrisberg,  30,  II 

—  sesamoid,  30,  at  seq, 

—  thyroid,  :".>.  Bl,  16 


154 


INDEX   TO  SUBJECTS. 


Cayenne,  115,  127 
Chest,  action  of,  37 

—  anatomy  of,  26 

—  development  of,  38 
Chest-voice,   laryngoscopic    ap- 
pearances in,  45,  46 

—  muscular  mechanism  of,  47 
Chest-walls,  26,  37,  73 
Circulation,  influence   of   vocal 

exercise  on,  103 
Clavicular  breathing,  39,  76,  78 
Cleft-palate,  95 
Clergyman's  sore  throat,  104 
Climates,  144 

—  cold,  147 

—  hot,  145 

—  relations  of,  with  voice,  147 

—  temperate,  150 

Clothing,  different  kinds  of,  1 38 

—  insufficient,  139 
Cocoa,  129 
Coffee,  129 

Cold  climates,  147 
Colour  in  clothing,  139 
Compass  of  voices,  55,  86 
Composer,    separate     office     of 

musical,  56 
Compound  sounds,  10 

—  vibrations,  7 
Condiments,  127 
Conduction  of  heat  in  clothing, 

140 
Consonants,  mechanism  of   the 
production  of,  93 

—  classification  of,  66 

—  formation  of,  66 
Contralto  voice,  56 

Cords,  vocal,  30,  40,  42,  82,  84,  86 

true  and  false,  32,  53 

Corpulence,    ill -effects    of,    on 
voice,  125 

—  remedy  for,  126,  127 
Corset,  injurious  effects  of,  77, 

140 
Cosmetics,  144 
Cotton  as  clothing,  138 
Coup  tie  rjlotte,  86 
Cricoid  cartilage,  29 
Cubebs,  116 


FLA 
Damp  air,  145 
Defects  of  speech,  94,  95 
Diaphragm,  breathing  by,  38,  77 
Differences,      individual      and 

sexual,  of  voice,  56,  58 
Digestibility  of  food,  123 
Digestion,  vocal  exercise  during, 

124 
Diseases  from  abuse   of  voice, 

104,  105 
Drink,  129 

Drinks,  alcoholic,  129 
Duration  of  vocal  tones,  72,  75 
Dust,  ill-effects  of  inhalation  of, 

109 
Dyspepsia,  deleterious  influence 

of,  on  voice,  124 
Dysphonia  clericorum,  104 


Echo,  nature  of,  6 
Efforts,  excessive  vocal,  74,  119 
Elements  in   the   formation  of 
voice,  24 

—  motor,  25,  et  seq. 

—  resounding,  25,  et  seq. 
—  vibrating,  25,  et  seq. 

Epiglottis,  description  of,  49 

—  functions  of,  50 
Eustachian  tube,  36 
Evaporation  from  the  skin,  136 
Execution,  vocal,  88 
Exercise  in  general,  133,  135 

—  vocal,  general  effects  of,  117, 
133 

local  effects  of,  133 

Expiration,  act  of,  39 

—  in  singing  or  speaking,  72 

—  muscles  of,  27 

Extension  of  vocal  compass,  82, 

86 
Extent,  musical,  of  voice,  56,  57 


Falsetto-voice,  laryngoscopic 

appearances  in,  47 
—  muscular  mechanism  of,  48 
Fatigue,  effects  of  vocal,  135 
Flannel  as  clothing,  139 


INDEX  TO  SUBJECTS. 


i 


v  air,  1  18 

Pood,  animal,  12] 

—  digestibility  of,  123 
vegetable,  L21 

Force  or  intensil  \  of  sound,  12, 

1 1 
Fundamental  tunc,  62 

(ii.Axns,  sebaceous,  136 

—  sudoriparous,  L36 
Glandular  sure  throat,  10  I 
Glottis,  31,  12,  13,  IS,  105 
Glycerine  for  the  voice,  1 1  I 
Growths  in  the  larynx,  106 
Gymnastics,  general,  134,  135 

—  respiratory,  7'.' 

—  vocal,  7;"),  7<>,  1 35 

HABD-PALATE,  35,  54 
Harmonics,  1 1,  17,  18 
Health,  beneficial  effects  of  vocal 

exorcise  on,  117 
Hot  climates,  1  15 
Humidity  of  air,  145,  146,  14S 
Hydrogen,  effects   of,  when  re- 

spired,  2 
Hygiene,  definition  of,  99 

—  general,  in  relation  lo  voice, 
117 

—  special,  of  vocal  organs.  99 


0P1 
Larynx,  musclea  of,  32 

—  physiolog]  of,  28 

—  variations  of,  Ln  age  and  sex, 
33 

Linen  as  clothing,  L38 

Lips,  act  i<m  of,  in  arl  iculal  ion, 

35,  86,  '.'7 
Lower  jaw,  in  articulation,  26 

—  in  stuttering,  M7 
Lozenges,  voice,  1 15,  127 


Maladies  from  abuse  of  voice, 
104,  LOS 

Management  of  articulating  or- 
gans, 92 

—  of  breath,  si 

—  of  vocal  reeds.  82 
Marsh  miasmata,  14G 
Medicine  of  the  voice,  115,  11G 
Membrane,  mucous,  30 
Mezzo-soprano  voice,  56 
.Monkey,  howling,   19 

Motion,  aerial,  influences  of.  ]().'> 
Mountain  air,  151 
Mouth,  breathing  by   the,   108, 
109 

—  resonance  in,  52 
Muscles  of  expiration,  27 

—  of  inspiration,  27 

—  of  larynx,  32 


Impurities,  atmospheric,  107 

Influences,  climatic,  144 

—  of  aerial  motion,  105 
Inspiration,  act  of,  106 

—  in  singing  or  speaking,  72 

—  muscles  of,  27 

Insl  rument,  arl  iculating,  25,  60 
Instruments,  reed,  60 
Intensity  of  sound,  12,  II 

Laryngoscope,  n 

Larynx,  anatomy  of,  I  1 

—  as  viewed  with  the  Laryngo- 
scope, 12,  II.  17 

—  cartilages  of,  28 


Nasal  timbre    in    instruments, 
17 

—  —  in  voice,  53,  '.'1 

Nodal  elevations  on  vocal  1  tands, 

lol 
Noise,    as    distinguished    from 

music,  L0 
Nose,  anatomy  of,  3  I 

—  breathing  by  the,  106,  107 

—  —  sounds  of,  53 
Nostrums  of    eminent    si: 

112,  111,  116 


Obesity,  set  <  'orpulence 

Opium,  or  morphia.  1  1 .". 


i56 


INDEX  TO  SUBJECTS. 


ORG 

Organ,  construction  of  pipes  of, 
11,  15,  21 

Overtones,  17,  62 

Oxygen,  amount  of,  in  air  rela- 
tive to  climate,  146,  147 

—  increased  respiration  of,  dur- 
ing vocal  exercise,  118 

Palate,  cleft,  95 

—  hard,  35,  54 

—  soft,  35,  54,  58 
Partial  tones,  upper,  17 
Perspiration,  136 
Pharynx,  anatomy  of,  51 

—  resonance  in,  85,  91,  92 
Pitch  of  sounds,  12 
Polypi,  or  warts,  105 
Prime  tone,  17,  62 
Pronunciation,  65,  66 
Psellism,  94 

Eeeds,  membranous,  21 

—  production  of  sound  by,  19 

—  woody,  20 
Register,  chest,  45,  48 

—  falsetto,  47,  58,  87 
Registers   of    voice,   limits    of, 

55 
Resonance  apparatus,  34,  49 

—  action  of,  92 

—  anatomy  of,  34 

—  management  of,  92 

—  sympathetic,  8,  18 
Resonators    of     Helmholtz,   18, 

46 
Respiration,  see  Breathing 
Respirator,  use  of,  149 
Respiratory  exercises,  89 
Ribs,  arrangement  of,  27 

—  movements  of,  in  breathing, 
27 

Santobini,  cartilages  of,  30 
Scale,  comparative,  of  different 

classes  of  voices,  57 
Silk,  as  clothing,  138 
Siren,  the,  12 


YEN 
Skin,  care  of  the,  136 

—  functions  of  the,  136 
Smoking,  effects  of,  127 
Soft-palate,  35,  54,  58,  90 
Soprano  voice,  56 
Sound,  definition  of,  1 

—  intensity  of,  12,  14 

—  pitch  of,  12 

—  qualities  of,  as  distinguished 
by  the  ear,  10 

—  timbre  of,  16 

—  transmission  of,  1 
Sound-waves,  3 
Sounds,  compound,  11 

—  simple,  10 

Stammering  and  stuttering,  94, 

95 
Stroke  of  the  glottis,  86 
Sustaining  power  of  voice,  73, 

77,79 

Tea,  129 

Teeth,  use  of,  in  articulation,  35, 

68,  91 
Temperate  climates,  150 
Tenor  voice,  56 
Thorax,  26 
Thyroid  cartilage,  29 
Timbre,  10,  16 

—  acoustic  nature  of,  83 

—  guttural,  90 
■ —  nasal,  90 

—  vowel,  92 

Tobacco,  effects  of,  on  the  sys- 
tem, 127 

Tongue,  action  of,  in  articulation , 
35,  65,  90,  97 

Trachea,  or  windpipe,  27,  43 

Tube,  Eustachian,  36 

—  vocal,  49,  89 
Tuning  fork,  8,  64 


Uvula,  35,  90 

Vegetarianism,  121 

Veil  of  the  palate,  35,  58,  90 

Ventricles  of  larynx,  32,  49 


IXDEX  TO  SUBJECTS. 


157 


vi:\ 
Ventricular  bands,  82,  1 1 
Vest  ibule  of  larynx,  ">i>.  52 
Vibrat  ion,  Bonorous,  7 

Vocal  hands  or  cords,  30,  1".  12, 

82,  81,  86 
Voice,  inlhiencc  of  mode  of  life 

on,  L20 

—  culture,  physiological    prin- 
ciples of,  72 

—  organs,  acoustic  classifical  ion 
of,  24 

anatomy  of,  lit 


WEI 
Voice,  phj  I .  37 

—  remedies,  ill,  111 
Volume  of  voice,  52 

Vowels,  format  ion  of,  61 

—  pronunciati E,  63 

Water-waves  and   air-wavi .-. 

3,  1 
Whispering,  nature  of,  71 
Wool,  as  clothing,  138 
Words,  first  sources  of,  60 
Wrisberg,  cartilages  of,  30,  1 1 


1  onion  :   nu.vrr.D   nv 

SroTIISWOOI'K    A.VI>    <•<..    \l  \v--l  l;F.F.T    6QCAIIH 
AM)    I'AJILIAJIK.NT    SI 


//v    vT  -^*i^»^e  <*&-^    c^r\^K 


DATE  DUE 

ffl§mm 

j    3UN  p  C 

1993     : ; ; 

^  2  1  1998 

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IG  0  1    : 

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01 

% 

wmM 

Mm 

P 

5HEft 

Ml 

ili 

SB 

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mm 


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it  ii  ii  mi 


0043077994 


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Holmes 
The  science  of  voice  production 

and  voice  preservation 


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